I LI BRARY OF CQN6KEg Sr | 

^ # 

{UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.} 



I 



THE PRINCIPLES 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



WITH 



COMPREHENSIVE OUTLINES, 

AND 

A CONCISE AND PROGRESSIVE SYSTEM 

OF 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING, 

FOR 

SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 

T> rYtICKROY, A.M., 

President op Lebanon Valley College, and Peoeessor of 
Belles Lettres and Philosophy. 



scr,^ 



1 



/^ PUBLISHED BY C 

J. A. BA]^CROFT & CO., PHTLADA; 

EDWARD SPEAKMAN, Chicago; HESDRICKS & CHITTENDEN. St. louis; 
ROBT. CLARKE & CO., Cincinnati. 

1868. 






^ 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by 

T. R. VICEROY, A.M., 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court, for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 



JAS. B. RODGERS, 

ELKCTEOTYPKR AND PRINTER, 

52 & 54 North Sixth Street, Philada. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Preface, 

Introductory Exercises, 



Part L— MORPHEPOLOGY, 



1,2 
5-12 



General Definitions and Divisions, 
Parts of Speech, 

Prop9sitions. Simple Elements, 
Species of Nouns, 
Properties of Nouns and Pronouns 
Grammatical Formation. Plural Number; 
Feminine Gender and Possessive Case, 
Personal and Indefinite Pronouns, . 
Conjunctive Pronouns, 
Classification of Adjectives, 
Properties and Forms of Adjectives, 
The Indefinite Verb, 
Properties of the Finite Verb. Mode, 
" " " " Tense, 

Forms of the Verb, 
Formation of the Principal Parts. — Strong Method 
" " '' " Weak Method, 

Auxiliary Verbs, .... 
Formation from the Principal Parts, 
Conjugation of Have, 

" '« Be, , 

Classification of Adverbs, 

" " Prepositions, 

" " Conjunctions, 

Conjunctive Adverbs, 
Classification of Connectives, . 
Particles, ..... 



I. 

IL 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VL 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XIL 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXIL 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 



13-15 
16-18 
19-21 
21,22 
23-26 
26-33 
33-38 
38-40 
40-43 
44-46 
47-51 
52-54 
55, 56 
57-59 
59-61 
62-66 
66-71 
72,73 
74-76 
76-79 
80-82 
83, 84 
85-88 
89,90 
91-93 
94,95 
96,97 



CONTENTS. 



Part II.— SYNTAX. 



Classification of Sentences. Propositions, 
Postulates. Rank. Porm, . 
Classification of Elements, . 
Proposition. Subject. Predicate. Verbs, 
Analysis and Parsing. Subject. Finite Yerb, 
Copulative Verbs. Attributes, 
Adjectives as Modifiers, 
Adjective Constructions. Possessive Case, 

" " Apposition, 

Construction of Adverbs, 
Transitive Verb. Objective Element, 
Prepositions. Phrases, 
Infinitives and Participles, 
Independent Elements, 
Quantitative Complement, 
Transito -Dative Verbs, 
T^ansito-Copulative and Transito-Partitive 
Inceptive Verbs and Verbal Adjectives, 
Modal Propositions. Postulates, 
Substantive Elements of the Third Class, 
Adjective *' " '' " 

Hypothetical Propositions, 
Pinal and Causal Clauses, 
Local Clauses, 
Temporal Clauses, 
Modal Clauses, 

Coordination. Compound Elements, 
Agreement with Compound Elements, 
Contraction and Abridgment, 
Arrangement and Transposition, . 
Classification of the Eules, . 



Pronoun, 



Verbs 



XXVIII. 


99-102 


XXIX. 


103-106 


XXX. 


lOr, 108 


XXXI. 


109-112 


XXXII. 


113-116 


XXXIII. 


117-121 


XXXIV. 


122-126 


XXXV. 


126-129 


XXXVI. 


130, 131 


XXXVII. 


132, 134 


XXXVIII. 


135,136 


XXXIX. 


137-141 


XL. 


141-147 


XLL 


148-151 


XLIL 


153-155 


XLIII. 


156-159 


XLIV. 


160-162 


XLV. 


164-167 


XLVI. 


168-170 


XLVII. 


171-175 


XLVIII. 


176-179 


XLIX. 


180-184 


L. 


185-187 


LL 


188, 189 


LII. 


190-192 


LIIL 


193-196 


LIV. 


197-200 


LV. 


201-205 


LVI. 


206-208 


LVII. 


209, 210 


LVIIL 


211-214 



PREFACE. 



Thouglitful teachers have long felt the need of a text-book on Eng- 
lish Grammar which would accord with the present state of Philology 
and Mental Science. The grammars in use seem to have been pre- 
pared without careful investigation. The errors of former ages are 
repeated. Thought and language are confounded, and the definitions 
are merely descriptions of iJrominent characteristics, not of features 
common and essential. In order to rescue English Grammar from this 
empirical state and reduce it to a Science, the author has devoted 
much thought and labor to the subject. The principles contained in 
this volume have been developed and tested in the recitation room and 
the study, and have been adopted only after careful consideration. 

The nature of language is important as a conditioning fact. Speech 
is a natural endowment, but language is artificial, being evolved from 
a few roots, and elaborated and improved as the race have advanced in 
the social scale. The vocables and forms of expression *re conventional., 
being shaped by physiological and social laws. 

Language and thought are not identical. Mental acts are momentary ; 
their formulation occupies time. Thinking in words is a double act: it 
includes the conception of the thought and also the conception of its 
expression. Language is therefore the embodiment of a mental act in 
w^ords, and the vernacular, the laws of thought and the general usage 
of cultivated persons become the test of accuracy. 

Thejoroi^mce of grammar is another important fact. Grammar is not 
the science of language; it treats only of a certain phase of language. 
liCxicology treats of the material element, of words in an isolated 
condition ; Exegesis, of the expository element, of forms and modes 
of expression no longer current. Graminar treats of Wi^ formal 
element and investigates the principles, relations and forms of wordsi 
combined into sentences. 

Logic is sometimes called general grammar. Logic is the art of 
reasoning, but grammar combines words into propositions for the use 
of the dialectician, points out the connection between ideas and words, 
and weaves into enduring forms thoughts and sentiments which other- 
wise would die with their conception. 

(3) 



* PREFACE. 

In preparing this volume, tlie author has made free use of other sys- 
tems. His object has not been to destroy, but to improve and perfect. 
Hence he has omitted or changed old terms, and introduced new ones 
only when his generalizations have required them. His object has not 
been to produce a novel system, but to present in a clear light all the 
facts and principles of English Grammar. 

This treatise aims to attain the following objects, viz : 

1st. To generalize and arrange in proper order all the facts relating 
to the English sentence. 

Slid. To present logical definitions and comprehensive outlines. 

3rd. To analyze at least one sentence of each kind. 

4tli. To furnish models for parsing all kinds of constructions and 
words in any predicament. 

5tli. To comprehend the principles of Syntax under a few (24) 
general rules without exceptions. 

6tli. To dispose of the language just as it is spoken or written with- 
out equivalents or ellipses. 

7th. To prepare a work by which teachers of ungraded Schools can 
make grammar a general exercise, and interest and instruct all their 
pupils at the same time. 

8tli. To prepare a text-book not burdened with cumbrous verbiage, 
but presenting all the facts of grammar in a clear and concise manner. 

9tli. To avoid mechanical processes and to suggest to teaahers 
methods by which they may induce pupils to think and to express their 
thoughts in correct and elegant language. 

How far these objects have been attained, remains for teachers to 
judge. 

Trusting that the motives which prompted the preparation of the book 
and the labor that it involved, will be duly appreciated, the work is 
cheerfully submitted to the judgment of the practical teacher and of 
the professional critic. 

Lebanon Valley College, ] 
Annville, Pa., April 4, 1868. j 



SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 



Exercise I. 

1. Make grammar a. general exercise. Do not use books until the 
class becomes interested in the subject. 

2. A class in any study should be considered an organized body, 
with the teacher as chairman. No member of the class should 
speak without permission. When a question is asked, each one 
that can answer it should raise his hand. The teacher should then 
direct some one to answer the question, and afterwards call upon 
the class to answer in concert 

3. The attention of each pupil should be secured before a recita- 
tion is commenced. Order and silence on the part of the teacher 
will secure this object. No teaching should be done while pupils 
are looking into books, tugging at one another , writing, whispering, tf c. 
Pupils should have slates and pencils. 

4. Arrange upon your desk several objects, as o, piece of crayon, a 
hook, a hall, a hell, &c., and commence and carry on a dialogue simi- 
lar to the following : 

Teacher [holding up a hook), "What is this? 

James. A book. 

Teacher. Write ^^hook'^^ on your slates. 

{A pause.) Have all written it ? 

[Hands up.) Where is the book, class f 
Pupils [answering variously). In your hand. On my slate. 
(5) 1* 



6 SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 

Teacher [repeating). Where is the book? 
Mary. In your hand. 

Teacher. If the book is in my hand, what have you written on 
your slates ? 

John. The word hook. 

Teacher. Tell me the difference between what I hold in my hand 
and what you have written on your slates, class. 

Pupils. You hold in your hand the book itself; its name is 
written on our slates. 

5. A similar course should be pursued with several objects. The 
teacher should request some one to write the names in order upon 
the board, beginning each word with a capital and putting a period 
after it. Thus: 

Crayon. 



Names, 



Box. 

Bell. 

I Ball. 



6, The pupils should now name the objects in the room. 

?• Require each pupil to make a list of the names of the objects 
he sees on his way to and from school. This is preparatory to the 
next exercise. 

Exercise II. 

1. The teacher should call his roll and note the number of names 
each pupil has written. This will stimulate them and make them 
more observing. 

2. The teacher, writing with the crayon, should inquire what the 
crayon does ? Many will say that it writes. Explain that you your- 
self z^n7g, but that the crayon marks. So with each of the other ob- 
jects. The bell does not ring; it sounds. The box does not set; it 
stands. The teacher throws the ball ; it hounds. 

3. Make two columns, one for names and another for actions. 

Thus : 

Names. Actions. 

Crayon marks. 

Box stands. 

Bell sounds. 

Ball bounds. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 7 

4. Perform a number of acts, such as writing, reading, walking j &c. ■ 
and request the class to tell what you do in each case. 

5. Require the class to write the names of at least twenty objects, 
with appropriate actions, as a preparation for the next exercise: 

Exercise III. 

1, Call your roll and note the extent of each pupil's preparation. 

2, Write a name and an action on the board, and explain the nature 
of a ^proposition. State that a proposition contains a name and one 
or more words, which say something of the object represented by 
that name. The name is called the subject, and the word or words 
which say something about it, i\\Q predicate, 

3, The class should analyze several sentences written on the board, 
using a formula like this: Chalk marks is a proposition, of which 
chalk is the subject and marks the predicate. 

Exercise IV. 

1. Take a piece of crayon and ask the class to name its color. 
They will say that it is white. By feeling the crayon they will per- 
ceive that it is soft, and by breaking it, that it is brittle, 

{white, 
soft, 
brittle. 
Other objects should be similarly treated. 

2» Show the difference between a quality and the thing to which 
it belongs. The quality is in the object, and cannot be separated 
from it. The word crayon designates a certain object as a whole, 
without expressing any of its qualities. White^ soft, brittle^ &c., are 
names of qualities which inhere in the crayon and are inseparable 
from it. 

3- Three kinds of words have now been presented. 1. Names of 
whole things (Xouns.) 2. Words which say something about these whole 
things (Verbs.) 3. Names of qualities belonging to whole things (Ad- 
jectives.) The teacher should make these distinctions clear by 
suitable illustration. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 

4. Take the sentence^ Crayon is white, Sind ask the class what words 
gay something of crayon. They will say '''is ivhiter Then ask what is 
said of crayon, and they will tell you white. Then explain to them that 
the word or w^ords representing what is said of the subject is called 
the attribute, and the word or words by which the assertion is made, 
the copula. Sentences like this should be analyzed according to the 
following formula: Crayon is white is a proposition of which crayon 
is the subject, and is white, the predicate, of which is is the copula 
and white the attribute. 

5. The teacher should name five objects, and require the class tc 
ascertain their qualities as a preparation for the next exercise. 

Exercise T. 

1. Examine each pupil's preparation and correct any mistakes he 
may have made. Write several sentences on the board, and ask 
some pupil to analyze them, leaving the class correct mistakes. 
When a pupil has analyzed a sentence, and his mistakes, if any, 
have been corrected, the class should analyze the sentence in con- 
cert. iS@^ Oi^al analysis cultivates correct expression, and concert recita- 
tion gives life and interest to the exercise, 

2, The nature and office of words expressing the external limita- 
tions of whole things, should now be presented. Take the words in 
^104 and show that the word to which they refer is taken in a 
general or indefinite sense, that is, that the word refers either 
to any or all of its class. So, too, with the words in P06. They are 
used to particularize objects, that is, to point out the 2^osition, 
number, order, &c., of objects. 



Exercise YI. 

1. Write sentences like the following on the board, and require 
pupils to tell to w^hat class each word belongs : 



Distributives, 
A horse is a useful animal. 
The weather is cold. 
Each note was clear. 
Every man hopes. 
All men are mortal. 



Definitives, 
The man is sick. 
That boy is intelligent. 
Several deer were seen. 
Few men are careful. 
Three bovs came. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 9 

J5^^Drill on Distributives and Definitives until each member of 
the class can distinguish them readily. 

2. Analyze the above sentences, using the formulas given in ^312 
and P17. 

Exercise Til. 

1. Certain words express place^ timej cause, manner, or degree. 
These limit, not objects, but words which say something about ob- 
jects, or, express some degree oi quality or modality. Form sentences 
containing some of the words contained in |207. Require the class 
to point out the limiting words. Such words are called Adverbs, 

2. Analyze sentences containing adjectives j nouns, verbs and adverbs^ 

3. Require the class to write ten sentences containing adverbs, as 
a preparation for the next exercise. 

Exercise Till. 

1. Examine the sentences prepared by the class. Analyze several 
sentences. Let some pupil analyze a sentence. The class should 
correct mistakes and then analyze the same sentence in concert, 

2. Place, time, cause, or manner, is expressed sometimes by a com- 
bination of words; as, The box stands on the table; The pen is in 
my hand ; Jane sits behind Mary. The words on, in and behind, show 
relations of things, and connect the words representing the things, 

3. Require sentences containing prepositions to be written as a 
preparation for the next exercise. Use the words in ^*s 217 and 
219. 

Exercise IX. 

Examine the sentences written. Teach the class how to analyze 
sentences containing prepositions. See §343. 

Exercise X. 

Take licsson lY and teach the class how to determine the 
different kinds of nouns. Each pupil has a name ; as, John, Mary, 
Samuel, These are called proper nouns. The class consists of males 
and females, designated by the terms boys and girls. These words 
are names of things classed, and are called common nouns. The 



10 SUGGETIONS FOR TEACHERS. 

teacher and pupils constitute a body organized for a certain purpose. 
The organization is called a class. Words designating organizations 
are termed collective nouns. Some of the class are ohedieyit; others, 
diligent^ &c. We speak of the obedience or diligence of certain mem- 
bers of the class. These words are formed from adjectives^ and are 
called abstract nouns. The teacher instructs and the pupils recite. 
These acts are spoken of as instruction and recitation^ and such words 
are denominated verbal nouns. Thus pupils can be taught how to 
distinguish the species of nouns. 

Exercise XI. 

Use liesson V to teach the properties of nouns. Employ sen- 
tences to illustrate jt)5?'5on, number, gender and case. Teach the defi- 
nitions contained in the Lesson. Carelessness in defining is very ob- 
jectionable. Those who study grammar should be exact in the use 
of words. 

Exercise XII. 

The nature of the pronoun should now be developed. Let the 
teacher say, He came^ and then ask, Who came? The class will not 
know w^ho is meant, unless some person was previously spoken of, 
and the reference is obvious. A pronoun does not stand for a noun. 
The noun represents an object j so does the pronoun, Pronosins are 
universal nouns. An object is already present to the mind, 
and, to beautify language, pronouns, which stand for all of their 
class, are substituted for the names of objects thus j;)resent. This 
is their characteristic quality. 

Exercise XIII. 

The grammatical forms of nouns and pronouns should now be 
taught. Lessons VI-IX inclusive, will furnish the necessary data. 
Present only the prominent features, omitting notes and remarks. 

B@^ A good rule for teaching anything is this; Teach what is 
general first ; afterwards what is jyctrticidar. 

Exercise XIV. 

Take Lesson X7/7and teach the modes. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 11 

Exercise XV. 

Take Lesson XIV and teach the Tenses. 

Exercise XVI. 

Take Lesson XFand teach the forms. 

Exercise XVII. 

Take Lesson XVIII and teach the use of auxiliary verbs. 

Exercise XVIII. 

The teacher should now assign Lesson II to the class, that they 
may learn the definitions of the Parts of Speech. Select a suitable 
])iece in the Reader the class is using, and require them to tell alter- 
nately, or in concert, to what part of speech each word belongs. 
Some of the class may be sent to the board, to write lists of the 
nouns J verbs J adjectives ^ &c., in the extract. 

General Directions. 

Commence with Lesson XXVIII, Part Second, and go regularly 
through the book, reviewing the First Part; according to the follow- 
ing schedule : 

Advance. 

XXXII, 

XXXIII and XXXIY, 

XXXV and XXXVI, 

XXXVII, 

XXXIX, 

XL, 

XLI, 

XLVII, 

XLVIII, 

LIV. 



Review, 
VIII, 
X and XI, 
V, 

XXII, 
XXIII, 
XII, 
XXVII, 
XXV, 
IX, 
XXIV. 



Eeyiew. 



Commence with Lesson I, and require the Outlines to be written 
on the board, so that pupils may learn to speak coherently, and 
may comprehend the subject in its general and special relations. 



12 SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 

Practical Grammar. 

The teacher should make a note of all the ungrammatical ex- 
pressions used by the pupils, and correct them upon the board. 
Generous criticism should he encouraged. Suppose a pupil come 
and say Datit^ I go home P Can I go home? He asks permission and 
should use may. 

Do not use 

jSet for sit 

Ijay for lie, 

Raise for rise. 

Done for did. 

Had been for were. 

Till for on, 

Knowed for knew. 

Seen for saw. 

If I was for If I were* 

One another for each other. 

In for into. 

Among for between, 

.Loadened for loaded, 

Drownded for drowned. 

To-morrow is Tuesday for To-morrow will be Tuesday. 



PART FIRST. 



MOEPHEPOLOGY.* 



CLASSIFICATION, PROPERTIES AND FORMS OF WORDS. 

LESSON I. 
General Definitions and Diyisions. 

1. L.anguao;ef is the embodiment of a mental act in 
articulate sounds or in words. It may be, — 

I. Spoken* 

II. Written. 

2. Spoken liang'uage is the utterance of significant 
articulate sounds. 

3. The branches which relate to Spoken language, are, — 

(1.) Reading, or the utterance, in proper order, of 
written or printed words, letters or characters. 

(2.) Elocution, or the art of delivering written or 
extemporaneous composition with force, propriety and ease. 

(3.) Rhetoric, or the philosophy and art of per- 
suasive speaking. 

* I have coined this word from three Greek words, fJioptprj, a form ; 
er:og, a word ; and 7Myoq, discourse. 

J Language is not only a medium of expression, but also an instru- 
merit of thought. Conceptions are formed of real or imaginary things, 
and zvords spoken or written are implements furnished by art for 
dealing with these conceptions. Words are the thinker's tools, and the 
vehicles by which he communicates his ideas of things 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Written lianguage* is the expression of thought 
sentiment or volition by means of certain graphic repre- 
sentations. 

5. The branches which relate to written language, are, — 

(l.)l«exicology, which treats of words in their separate 
capacity, and includes — 

(a.) Ortliography, or the correct writing of words 
by representing their elementary sounds with proper 
letters. 

(b.) Etymology, or the origin and derivation of 
words. 

(c.) Heitnition, or an explanation of the significa- 
tion and applications of words. 
(2.) Grainiuar, which investigates the properties, rela- 
tions and forms of words combined into sentences; and 
includes, — 

(a.) Morpliepology, or the classification and forms 
arising from the relations of words to one another. 

(6.) Syntax, or the construction of sentences. 

(c.) Composition, or the process of inventing ideas, 
and the art of properly expressing them. 
(3.) Exegesis, which is the science of interpretation, 
and includes,— 

(a.) Pliilology, or the investigating of the origin 
and construction of languages. 

(h.) Criticism, or judging with propriety of the 
beauties and faults of literary compositions. 

(c.) Mermeneutics, or interpreting and explaining 
to others the meaning of an author's words and phrases. 

■^ Literature and Written Language are not coextensive terms. Litera^ 
ture is thought and sentiment artistically expressed, and may exist in 
an unwritten state. Written Language is language representative^ and 
includes written and printed compositions of all kinds. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



15 



1. Reading. 

2. Elocution. 
. Rhetoric. 



a. Orthograpby. 
h. Etymology, 
c. Definition. 




r a. Parts of Speech. 
^ h. Properties of Words. 
1 c. Forms of Words. 



a. Analysis, 
h. Parsing. 
False Syntax. 



a. Capital Letters. 

b. Punctuation. 

c. Figures of Speech. 

d. Varieties of Style. 

e. Properties of Style. 
/. Prose Composition. 
g. Poetry. 

•J r cK. Philology. 
6. Criticism, 
c. Hermeneutics. 

Note to the Teachek.^Uso the outlines instead of questions. 
Let one of your more advanced students copy the outline on ihe 
black-board, while the rest are exercised on other parts of the lesson. 
Then require one or more students to define each term in logical order, 
and let the others criticise. Thus, grammar will become the mean3 
of high intellectual development, 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON II. 

Parts of Speech. 

7. The English language comprises about 70,000 words, which 
may be comprehended under three divisions : — 

I. IdeatiTes. 
II. Conueetives* 
III. Particles. 
I. — 8. An IdeatiTc is a word which, by itself, expresses a 
complete idea, and the form of which may be changed to 
express grammatical properties. Ideatives include, — 

(1.) Xouns. 
(2.) Pronouns 
(3.) Adjectives. 
(4.) Verbs. 
(5.) Adverbs. 

9. A Noun is a word which expresses the whole or 
a distinct part of anything ; as, Arm, hand, finger. 

10. A Pronoun is a word substituted for the name of 
an object present to the mind; as, John burnt nis hand, 

11. An Adjective is a word which expresses some qual- 
ity or limitation of an object; as. This apple is good. 

12. A Verb is a word which expresses affirmation; as, 
John WRITES ; Harry is good. 

13. An Adverb is a word which expresses place, time, 
cause, manner, or degree; di^, John writes very rapidly. 

II. — 14. A Connective is a word used to join certain 
elements of discourse. Connectives include, — 

(6.) Prepositions. 

(7.) Conjunctions. 

(8.) Conjunctive Pronouns. 

(9.) Conjunctive Adverbs. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. IT 

15. A Preposition is a connective which joins words 
representing related things; as, The apples are IN the 
cellar. 

16. A Conjunction is a connective which joins words 
representing related thoughts, sentiments, or volitions ; as, 
Mary sings AND Olara plays. 

17. A Conjunctive Pronoun is a pronoun which con- 
nects the clause, of which it forms a part, to the word 
which the clause modifies ; as. The man whom I lovedy is 
dead. ' 

18. A Conjunctive Adverb is an adverb which connects 
the clause, of which it forms a part, to the word which the 
clause modifies; as, See how it rains! 

III. — 19. A Particle is a word which expresses a shade 
of thought or sentiment. Particles include, — 

(10.) Interjections. 

(11.) Expletives. 

(12.) Correlatives. 

(13.) Intensives. 

20. An Interjection is a word which expresses emotion ; 
as. Oh! alas! 

21. An Expletive is a word which renders a sentence 
more euphoneous, without expressing any additional idea; 

■ as. There is a God. 

22. A Correlative is a word which expresses antithesis ; 
as. Though he was rich^ yet he became poor. 

23. An Intensive is a word which renders a sentence 
more emphatic, w^ithout expressing any additional idea; as, 
He injured even me. 



18 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



24. 'Exercise I. 

Tell to what class, each of the tvords in the following sentences 
belongs, 

1. Of all the birds of our groves and meadows, tlie Bobolink 
was the envy of my boyhood. 

2. He crossed my path in the sweetest weather and the sweet- 
est season of the year, when all nature called to the fields, and 
the rural feeling throbbed in every bosom. 

3. Oh 1 how I envied him ! 

4. No lessons, no tasks, no schools; nothing but holiday, 
frolic, green fields, and fine weather ! 

5. Well, then, go to market again to-morrow, and buy me the 
worst things you can find. 

6. The fool hath said in his heart, "There is no God.'^ 

7. What ! is thy servant a dog ? 

8. Then, when I am thy captive, talk of chains ! 

9. Love, and love only, is the loan for love. 

10. Just as the twig is bent, the tree inclines. 

11. None knew thee, but to love thee; none named thee, but 
to praise. 







e 



Cm 
fa 



I. IdeatiTes* 



II. ConncctiTes. 



1. Nouns. 

2. Pronouns. 

3. Adjectives. 

4. Verbs. 

5. Adverbs. 

6. Prepositions. 

7. Conjunctions. 

8. Conjunctive Pronouns. 

9. Conjunctive Adverbs. 



III. Particles. 



J 10. Interjections, 

11. Expletives. 

\ 12. Correlatives. 

I 13. Intensives. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 

LESSON III. 

Proposition. Simple Elements. 

25. A Proposition is a judgment expressed in words. 

It consists of, — 

(1.) Subject, and 

(2.) Predicate. 

26. The Subject is that of which something is aflSrmed; 

as, JOHN writes. 

Remark. — The subject answers the question who or what before 
the verb; as, who ^^r^7e5 ? john. 

27. The Predicate is that which affirms something of 
the subject; as, John writes. It sometimes consists of, — 

(1.) Copula, and 
(2.) Attribute. 

28. The Copula is that by which something is affirmed 
of the subject; as, John IS good. 

Remark. — Here is is the copula. 

29. The Attribute is that which is affirmed of the sub- 
ject; as, John is good. 

Remark 1. — Here good is the attribute. 

Remark 2. — The Subject and Predicate are termed Principal Ele- 
ments. 

30. Any word, or combination of words, answering the 
questions, tvhat hind ? how many ? or, whose ? is an Ad- 
jective Element ; as, MY TWO GOOD dogs run. 

Remark. — Here 3iy answers the question ivhose? two, the question 
how many 9 and good, the question what kind? 

31. Any word, or combination of words, answering the 
questions, what ? or, whom ? after the verb, is an Ob- 
jective Element; as, William struck harry; James stud- 
ies GEOGRAPHY. 

Remark. — Harry answers tlie question whom ? and geography, 
the question what f 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

32. Any word, or combination of words, answering the 
questions, where ? when ? why ? or how ? is an Adverbial 
mement; as, Percy went THERE HASTILY YESTERDAY ON 

ACCOUNT OF SICKNESS. 

Remark 1. — There answers the question where? hastily, the 
question how ? yesterday, the question when ? and, on account of 
SICKNESS, the question ivhy ? 

Remark 2. — The Adjective Element, the Objective Element, and 
the Adverbial Element, are termed Subordinate Elements. 

33. Model of Analysis. 

Example. — Tlie pupil performed the task correctly. 

Model. — The pupil performed the task correctly is a simple^ 
categorical' proposition, of which the pupil is the subject (why?), 
being complex, of which pupil is the basis, marked definite 
by the^ an adjective element of the first class^ (why?). Per- 
formed the task correctly is the predicate (why?), being com- 
plex, of which performed is the basis, modified (1) by the task, 
an objective element of the first class' (why?), being complex, 
of which task is the basis, mapked definite by the^ an adjective 
element of the first class' (why?); performed is modified (2) 
by correctly J an adverbial element of the first class (why?). 

Remark. — The student should be drilled on the definitions given 
in this lesson until he can readily distinguish each of the elements. 

34. Examples for Analysis. 

1. Ambitious men often deceive themselves. 

2. The birds devour the cherries greedily. 

3. That beautiful tree is an elm. 

4. My youngest child is a girl. 

5. Silvery clouds fringed the horizon. 

6. This little twig bore that large red apple. 

7. The last squadron arrived early this morning. 

8. A thousand soldiers make a resriment. 

9. Isabella, a piourS queen, assisted Columbus. 

10. Iron railing is very durable. 

11. He has bruised his thumb severely. 

12. Constant occupation prevents temptation. 

1. 265. 2. 248. 3. Outline 23. II, II^ 1. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



21 









I. Principal. 



II. Subordinate. 



1. Subject. 

3. Adjective Element. 

4. Objective Element. 

5. Adverbial Element. 



Copula. 
Attribute. 



LESSON IV. 
Species of Nouns. 

36. A Noun is a word which expresses the whole or a 
distinct part of anything. 

37. There are five kinds of nouns, viz : — 

(1.) Proper. 
(2.) Common. 
(3.) Collective. 
(4.) Abstract. 
(5.) Verbal. 

38. A Proper Noun is a name which distinguishes one 
object from another of the same class; as, Henry writes; 
Clara reads. 

39. A Common Noun is a name common to each one 
of a class of objects; as, Boys write; girls read. 

40. A Collective Noun is a name which denotes an or- 
ganized mass of beings; as. Congress adjourned; the 
TRIBE is extinct, 

41. An Abstract Noun* is a name which designates a 

"^Abstract nouns are generally derived from adjectives, and are 
formed by changing the termination and suffixing ity^ ety, ty, cy, ce^ 
ice, thy ude, tude, itude, ness, mony, dom, ric, ate, hood, ship, or aye. The 
last six terminations are sufi&xed to nouns and generally denote a 
state or office. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

quality or state; as, Truth is mighty; Benevolence is a 
prime virtue. 

42. A Verbal JVoimf is a name which expresses activity ; 
as, Friction, movement, pressure. 

Remark. — Many grammarians regard infinitives and participles as 

verbal nouns. This arises from not distinguishing between apart of 
speech and an element of discourse. Infinitives and participles are used 
to abridge discourse, and /or that purpose only. 

44. Exercise III. 

Analyze the following sentences, select the nouns and tell to 
what species they belong, 

1. Samuel, the miller, has a large family. 

2. Grrant commanded a powerful army. 

3. Henry found a swarm of bees yesterday. 

4. The class is quite a large one. 

5. James made a mistake. 

6. Spurgeon has large congregations. 

7. Boys should always speak the truth. 

8. Groodness and mercy have always followed me. 

9. The procession moved along briskly. 

10. Diligence is essential to a student^s success. 

11. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 

12. Age, that lessens the enjoyment of life, increases our 

desire of living. 

r 



Outline No. 4. 
NOUNS. 



1. Proper. 

2. Common. 

3. Collective. 

4. Abstract. Note. 

5. Verbal. Note. Remark. 



f Verbal nouns are formed from verbs by suffixing the terminations 
my, ioUy menty ament, iment, ure, ture, thy ature^ itiire, al and ade. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 23 

LESSON V. 
Properties of Nouns and Prononns. 

45. The grammatical properties of nouns and pronouns, are, — 

(1.) Person. 
(2.) ]%' umber* 
(3.) Oeutler* 
(4.) Case. 

46. Person is that property of a noun or pronoun which 
shows the relation of the speaker to the object which said 
noun or pronoun represents. 

47. There are three persons; the First, the ISecond, and 
the Third. 

48. A noun or pronoun is of the First person, when it rep- 
resents the speaker; as, i, John, did it. 

49. A noun or pronoun is of the Second person when it 
represents the person addressed; as, John, bring me the hooh; 
You did it. 

50. A noun or pronoun is of the Third person when it rep- 
resents some person or thing spoken of; as, John tore his coat. 

51. The Xnmber of a noun or pronoun is that property which 
relates to the unity or plurality of the objects represented. 

52. There are two numbers; the Singnlar and the Plural. 

53. A noun or pronoun is of the Singular number, — 

(1.) When it represents but one object; as, A good sol- 
dier obeys. 

(2.) When it represents a collection of objects regarded 
as a whole; as. The army is large. 

54. A noun or pronoun is of the Plural number, — 

(1.) When it represents more than one object; as. Sol- 
diers fight. 

(2.) When it represents a collection of objects consid- 
ered in its parts} as, The COUNCIL were divided in their 
opinions. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

55. The Gender of a noun or pronoun is that property 
Trhich relates to the sex of the object represented. 

56. There are two sexes; the male and the female: but there 

are three genders,— 

(a.) The Masculine. 
(^.) The Feminine. 
(c.) The Neuter. 

57. A noun or pronoun is of the Masculine gender, — • 

^ (1.) When it is the name of a male; as, Boy, man. 

(2.) When it is the name of an object to which mascu- 
line* qualities are attributed ; as, The sun goes forth in 
HIS strength, 

58. A noun or pronoun is of the Feminine gender, — 

(1.) When it is the name of a female; as, Girl, woman, 
(2.) When it is the name of an object to which femininef 

qualities are attributed; as, The moon walks forth in 

HER brightness. 

59. A noun or pronoua is of the Neuter gender when it is the 
name of an object that has no sex and to which no sex is at- 
tributed ; as. The tree is old. 

Note. — Many grammarians treat of a common gender, but a little 
reflection will convince any one that common gender is a mere mi/th. 
Take for example the word parent. In the singular this word may be 
either masculine or feminine, but it cannot be both. For instance, if I 
say, "My father is dead. He was a kind, indulgent /^are/i^," the word 
parent is masculine; or, if I say, "My mother is dead. I remember her 
as a tender and affectionate parent,^^ the word parent \s, feminine. So in 
ever}' case the gender may be determined by the context; and, since, 
even in the highly inflected languages, there is no separate form for 
the common gender, it is obviously not founded upon any linguistic 
phenomena. The rule of the English language is, when objects of 
both sexes are represented by the same word, the masculine form is 
preferred, except in a few instances where the female is regarded as 
the type of the species. The words ducks and geese^ names of the fe- 
male, frequently refer to both sexes. 

* Grandeur, roughness, strength, &c. 

f Beauty, delicacy, fecundity, gentleness, &c. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 25 

60. Case is that property of a noun or pronoun which 
relates to the form it takes in view of its construction. 

There are three cases, — 

(a.) The NomiuatlTe* 

(5.) The PossessiTe. 

(c.) The Objective. 

62. The Nominative case is the form a noun or pronoun 
takes, when it is the subject of a finite verb ; as, Charles reads; 
He icrites. 

63. The Possessive case is the form a noun or pronoun 
takes when it is placed before a noun to hmit it; as, His wife; 
John's hook, 

64. The Objective case is the form a noun or pronoun takes 
when it is the complement of a verb or preposition ; as, John 
struck him; John fell into the river. 

65. Exercise IV. 

Analyze the following sentences^ select the nouns and pro^ 
nouns and tell their properties, 

1. Ellen's eyes are blue. 

2. Our neighbor's bees left their hive. 

3. We have cleaned our desks. 

4. I invited him. 

5. Her dress was white and neat. 

6. She has torn her book. 

7. I went down street. 

8. The book lay on the table. 

9. The bridge extends over the river. 

10. I shall return soon. 

11. Several railroads run through Maryland. 

12. John o-ave his sister a dollar. 



26 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



e ft 



I 

o 
o 

u 
c 



r\* Person. 



II. ]¥amber. 



III. Cfenaer. 



IV. Case. 



First Person. 
Second Person. 
c. Third Person. 

a. Singular, i^^^)^ 
&; Plural. {[!;) 

a. Masculine. | L'? 

b. Feminine. < Lv 
. c. Neuter. Note. 



a. Nominative. 
h. Possessive. 
a. Objective. 



LESSON VI. 
Grammatical formation of Nouns. — Plural Number. 

66. The form of nouns may be changed to denote, — 

(1.) The Plural Number. 

(2.) The Feminine Gender, and, 

(3.) The Possessive Case. 

67. Nouns are generally pluralized by suffixing s to the 
singular form; as, Bot/, boys; troop, troops. 

68. To this general rule there are five exceptions, viz: 

EXCEPTION I. 
Nouns ending in ch (soft), sh, x, z, s and ss, and t, o, u, or y, 
preceded by a consonant, form the plural by suffixing es, the y 
being changed into i; as chm^ch, CHURCHes ; box. Boxes ; r/e- 
ography^ GEOGRAPHies ; negro, NEGROes ; money, moneys. 

EXCEPTION II. 

Nouns ending in / or fe, change / or fe into ves; as heef^ 
BEEves; sheaf, SHEATes; wife, wives, 

Remark. — This exception applies to only 28 nouns. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



27 



EXCEPTION III. 

Letters, figures, signs, &c., are pluralized by suffixing 's; as, 
Dut your Ps and stroke your T's; 5'S; 7'S; -|-'s. 

EXCEPTION lY. 

The following nouns form their plurals irregularly, viz: 
Brother, brothers, {of the same family) brethren, (same society') 
Child, children 



kine. 

dies, {in coining) 

fish, {jiuantity or species) 

genii, (spirits) 

indices, (exponents) 



pence. (Eng. currency) 



Cow, cows, 

Die, dice, (in gaming) 

Fish, fishes, (inclividuals) 

Foot, feet. 

Genius, geniuses, (men) 

Goose, geese. 

Index, indexes, (tables of contents) 

Louse, lice. 

Man, men. 

Mouse, mice. 

Ox, oxen. 

Penny, pennies, (pieces of money) 

Sir, gentlemen. 

Tooth, teeth. 

Woman, women. 

EXCEPTION V. 
"Words adopted from other languages form their plurals accor- 
ding to the languages from which they are derived, but the ten- 
dency is to naturalize such words and give them an English 
form; as, Dogma, dogmata, (Anglicized) dogmas; memoran- 
dum, memoranda, (Anglicized) memorandums. 

69. The following classified list comprises nearly all the words 
in general use adopted from other languages. 

1. A is changed to M. 
Alumna, alumnae. minutia. 

Fibula, fibulae. nebula. 

Lamina, laminae. scoria, 



minutiae. 

nebulae. 

scorise. 



-^^.-_J 



28 



ENGLISH GRxiMMAR. 



Larva, larvae. siniia, simiaa. 

Macula, maculae. vertebra, vertebrae. 

Ai'ena^ cicada dindi formula farm their plurals also regularly. 
2. A is changed to ATA. 



Dogma, 


dogmata. 


dogmas, regular 


Miasma, 


miasmata. 




Stigma, 


stigmata. 


stigmas, regidar 




3. US IS changed into I. 


Alumnus, 


alumni. 


sarcophagus, sarcophagi. 


Calculus, 


calculi 


stimulus, stimuli. 


Echinus, 


echini. 


terminus, termini. 


Magus, 


magi. 


tumulus, tumuli. 


Focus, 


foci. 


focusus. regular 


Fungus, 


fungi, 


funguses, regular 


Hippopotamus, 


hippopotami. 


hippopotamuses, regidar 


Nautilus, 


nautili, 


nautiluses, regular 


Nucleus, 


nuclei, 


nucleuses, regular 


Polypus, 


polypi. 


polypuses, regidar 


Radius, 


radii, 


radiuses, regular 




4. UM or ON h changed into A. 


Animalculum, 


animalcula. 


effluvium, effluvia. 


Aphelion, 


aphelia. 


ephemeron, ephemera. 


Arcanum, 


arcana. 


erratum, errata. 


Corrigendum, 


corrigenda. 


parhelion, parhelia. 


Datum, 


data. 


perihelion, perihelia. 


Desideratum, 


desiderata. 


phenomenon, phenomena. 


Aquarium, 


aquaria, 


aquariums, regular 


Automaton, 


automata, 


, automatons, regular 


Criterion, 


criteria. 


criterion s. regidar 


Encomium, 


encomia, 


encomiums, regular 


Fulcrum, 


fulcra. 


fulcrums. regular 


Gymnasium, 


gymnasia. 


, gymnasiums, regular 


Herbarium, 


herbaria, 


herbariums, regidar 


Medium, 


media. 


mediums, regular 


Memorandum, 


memoranda, memorandums, reg. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



29 



Menstruum, 


menstrua, 




menstruums. regular 


Momentum, 


momenta, 




momentums, regidar 


Rostrum, 


rostra, 




rostrums, regular 


Scholium, 


scholia. 




scholiums, regular 


Spectrum, 


spectra, 




spectrums. regular 


Speculum, 


specula. 




speculums. regular 


Stratum, 


strata, 




stratums. regular 


Trapezium, 


trapezia, 




trapeziums, regular 


Vinculum, 


vincula, 




vinculums, regular 




5. IS is changed into ES. 


Amanuensis, 


amanuenses. 


hypothesis, hypotheses 


Analysis, 


analyses. 


metamorphosis, metamorphoses. 


Antithesis, 


antitheses. 


oasis, 


oases. 


Axis, 


axes. 


parenthes 


is, parentheses. 


Basis, 


bases. 


phasis. 


phases. 


Crisis, 


crises. 


praxis, 


praxes. 


Diaeresis, 


diaereses. 


synopsis, 


synopses. 


Diesis, 


dieses. 


synthesis, 


syntheses. 


Ellipsis, 


ellipses. 


thesis, 


theses. 


Emphasis, 


emphases. 








6. IS is changed info IDES. 


Aphis, 


aphides. 


ephemeris, epheraerides. 


Apsis, 


apsides. 


epidermis 


5, epidermides. 


Cantharis, 


cantharides. 


proboscis. 


, proboscides. 


Chrysalis, 


chrysalides. 


iris, 


irides or irises. 




7. X is changed into CES. 


Appendix, 


appendices, 


appendixes, regular 


Calx, 


calces, 




calxes. regular 


Calyx, 


calyces, 




calyxes, regular 


Cicatrix, 


cicatrices 


J 


cicatrixes, regular 


Helix, 


helices. 




helixes, regular 


Matrix, 


matrices, 




matrixes, rcgulxir 


Radix, 


radices. 




radixes. regidar 



30 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



8. EX is changed into ICES. 



Apex, 


apices, 


apexes, regular 


Vertex, 


vertices, 


vertexes. regular 


Vortex, 


vortices. 


vortexes, regular 




9. Plurals variously/ formed. 


Beau, 


beaux, 


beaus. regular 


Bandit, 


banditti. 


bandits, regular 


Cherub, 


cherubim, 


cherubs, regular 


Genus, 


genera. 




Hiatus, 


hiatus. 


hiatuses, regidar 


Larynx, 


larynges, 


larynxes, regular 


Madame, 


mesdames. 




Monsieur, 


messieurs. 




Mr., 


messrs. 




Phalanx, 


phalanges. 


phalanxes, regular 


Seraph, 


seraphim. 


seraphs, regular 


Stamen, 


stamina. 


stamens, regular 


Vertigo, 


vertigines, 


vertigoes, regular 


Virtuoso, 


virtuosi. 


virtuosoes. regular 



Remark 1. — In compound words, the prominent element is 
pluralized; as, Aid-de-camp, AIDS-I)E-CAMP; Cousin-germain, 
COUSINS -GERMAIN. But when both words are equally prominent, 
both are pluralized ; as, Knight'templary knights -templars; 
,3Ian'Servant, men-servants. 

The same principle applies to titles and proper names : if a 
title J common to several persons of the same name, is prominent, 
it should be pluralized ; as, The misses Gring in contradistinc- 
tion to the MESSRS Gring : if the name is prominent, it should be 
pluralized; as, The Miss Horners in contradistinction to the Miss 
GrRiNGS: and if the title belongs to persons of different names, it 
must be pluralized; as, Messrs. J. A. Bancroft <Sc Co; bishops 
Simpson and Janes, 

Remark. 2. — In addressing married ladies, the title or 
initials of the husband are used instead of those of the lady her- 
self. If there are several ladies whose husbands have the same 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



31 



surname; as, Mrs. Dr. Jones^ Mrs. IIy^^vly Jones ^ Mrs. William 
Jones^ the raoxa prominent title is used, in order to distinguish 
the wife of one gentleman of the same name, from that of another. 
A lady whose husband is dead, is properly addressed by her own 
Christian name, especially if she is transacting business for her- 
self; as, Mrs. Mary Jones. 

Remark 3. — The names of qualities^ states^ actions, substan- 
ces, arts, sciences and diseases, when the reference is to the kind 
of thing, are generally used in the singular number only. — KcrTs 
Grammar ; as, Pride, hiisiness, platinum, mumps^ &c. But when 
different kinds are meant, or when the things consist of parts, 
they become plural. News is singular. 

Remark 4. — The names of things consisting of many parts, 
are always plural. So also with the scientific family names of 
animals and plants. 



Aborigines. 


dregs. 


nippers. 


stairs. 


Annals. 


embers. 


nuptials. 


statistics. 


Antipodes. 


entrails. 


oats. 


stilts. 


Archives. 


goggles. 


pains, (care) 


suds. 


Ashes. 


hatches. 


paraphernalia. 


thanks. 


Assets. 


head-quarters. 


pinchers. 


teens. 


Belles-lettres. 


hose. 


pleiades. 


tongs. 


Billiards. 


hysterics. 


regalia. 


tidings. 


Bitters. 


ides. 


riches. 


trousers. 


Bowels. 


intestines. 


remains. 


tweezers, 


Breeches. 


lees. 


scissors. 


vespers. 


Cattle. 


literati. 


shears. 


victuals. 


Clothes. 


lungs. 


snuffers. 


vitals. 


Drawers. 


mammalia. 


spectacles. 


withers. 



wages, also sing. 

Remark 5. — The following words have acquired a different 
meaning in the plural. 

Arm, arms. arms, weapons. 

Color, colors. colors, banner. 

Compass, compasses. compasses, dividers. 



32 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Divider, 


dividers. 


dividers, an instrument. 


Drawer, 


drawers. 


drawers, an artide of clotMng. 


Good, 




goods, merchandise. 


Green, 




greens, ^oimg leaves for cooking 


Ground, 


grounds. 


grounds, sediment. 


Letter, 


letters* 


letters, literature. 


Manner, 


manners. 


manners, behavior. 


Moral, 


morals. 


morals, morality. 


Shamble, 


shambles. 


shambles, meat market. 


Spectacle, 


spectacles. 


spectacles, glasses. 


Stay, 


stays. 


stays, corsets. 


Vesper, 


vespers. 


vespers, an evening hymn. 



Remark. 6. — The following nouns, though singular in form, 
are used in both numbers, viz : baggage^ billion^ brace, couple, 
dozen, deer, fry, gross, grouse, head (cattle), hose, million, pair, 
sail (ships), score, salmon, sheep, swine, trillion, &c., trout, ver- 
min, and yoke. 

Remark. 7. — The following nouns, though plural in form, are 
used in both numbers, viz; apparatus, bellows, alms, corps, 
means, odds, pains (effort), riches, series, species, tidings. 

Note 1. — When a proper noun denotes a family, a race, a 
group, or two or m.ore individuals of the same name or character, 
itisplurahzed; as, I'Ae Grants a^ic? Shermans; TAeBAHAMAS. 

Note 2. — Proper nouns, nouns adopted from other languages, 
and all unusual nouns, in order to preserve their identity, are 
varied as little as possible; as, Denny, the Dennys; Dennie, the 
Dennies ; canto, cantos. But when such words become fully 
naturalized, they conform to the rules stated in the excep- 
tions and remarks. Hence the following words are beginning to 
be pluralized by the sujfixing of es, according to Exception III, 
viz; canto, duodecimo, fandango, fresco, grotto, halo, hidalgo, 
Junto, lasso, memento, octavo, piano, portico, quarto, salvo, solo^ 
tyro and zero; as, cantoes. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



33 



70. Exercise V. 

1. Form the plurals of the following nouns: — 

Toy, glass, wharf, geography, foho, canto, fife, five, fly, duty, 
ox, box, child, man, 2, -[-, £, f, s, 7, gr., index, knight-templar, 
loaf, man-servant, nebula, pence, roof, son-in-law, tooth, unicorn, 
vortex, water, youth, zero, goose - feather. 

2. Analyze the following sentences, select the nouns ^ and tell 
to what species they belong and what their properties are. 

Coriolanus was a distinguished Roman Senator and general, 
who had rendered eminent services to the Republic. But these 
services were no security against envy and popular prejudice. 
He was at length treated with great severity and ingratitude by 
the Senate and people of Rome, having been obliged to sufler 
voluntary banishment in order to preserve his life. 



LESSON VII. 
Formation of the reminine Gender and Possessive Case. 

• 71. There are three nictliods by which a difference in gender. 
1. By different words. 



is expressed. 






1. I 


Bachelor, 


maid. 


Baker, 




Beau, 


belle. 


Boar, 


sow. 


Boy, 


girl. 


Brewer. 




Bridegroom, 


bride. 


Brother, 


sister. 


Buck, 


doe. 


Bull, 


cow. 


Bulhck, steer 


heifer. 


Cock, rooster 


hen. 


Colt, 


filly. 


Dog, 


bitch. 



Lad, 


lass. 


Lord, 


lady. 


Lover, 


lady-love. 


Male, 


female. 


Man, 


woman. 


Master, 


mistress. 


Master, 


miss. 


Mr., 


mrs. 


Monk, friar 


nun. 


Monsieur, 


madame. 


Monsieur, 


mademoiselle. 


Nephew, 


niece. 


Papa, 


mamma. 


Ram, huclc 


ewe. 



34 



ENGtISH GRAMMAR. 



Drake, 


duck. 


Sir, 


madam. 


Earl, 


countess. 


Sire, Jiorse^ 


dam. 


Father, 


mother. 


Sloven, 


slattern, slut. 


Gander, 


goose. 


Son, 


daughter. 


Gentleman, 


lady. 


Spouse, 


consort. 


Hart, 


roe. 


Stag, 


hind. 


Horse, stallion^ mare. 


Steer, 


heifer. 


He. 


she. 


Swain, 


nymph. 


Husband, 


wife. 


Uncle, 


aunt. 


Indian, 


squaw. 


Wizard, 


witch. 


t-ng, 


queen. 


Youth, 


maiden. 


2. 


By a difference of Termination. 


Abbot, 


abbess. 


Inventor, 


inventress. 


Actor, 


actress. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


Administrator, administratrix, 


. Landgrave, 


landgravine. 


Adventurer, 


adventuress. 




laundress. 


Adulterer, 


adulteress. 


Lion, 


lioness. 


Ambassador, 


ambassadress. 


Marquis, 


marchioness. 


Anchoret, 


i anchoress. 


Margrave, 


margravine. 


Anchorite^ 


Mayor, 


mayoress. 


Arbiter, 


arbitress. 


Mediator, 


( mediatress. 
( mediatrix. 


Author, 


authoress. 


Auditor, 


auditress. 


Monitor, 


monitress. 


Baron, 


baroness. 


Negro, 


negress. 


Benefactor, 


benefactress. 


Orator, 


J oratress. 
1 oratrix. 


Caterer, 


cateress. 


Chanter, 


chantress. 


Painter, 


paintress. 


Conductor, 


conductress. 


Patron, 


patroness. 


Count, 


countess. 


Poet, 


poetess. 


Dauphin, 


dauphiness. 


Porter, 




Deacon, 


deaconess. 


Preceptor, 


preceptress. 


Director, 


directress. 


Priest, 


priestess. 


Diviner, 


diviness. 


Prince, 


princess. 


Doctor, 


doctress. 


Prior, 


prioress. 


Don, 


donna. 


Professor, 


professorine. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



35 



Duke, 

Editor, 

Elector, 

Emperor, 

Enchanter, 

Executor, 

Founder, 

Giant, 

God, 

Goodman, 

Governor, 

Heir, 

Hermit, 

Hero, 

Host, 

Huckster, 

Hunter, 

Idolater, 

Infant, 

Instructor, 

Baker, 

Brewer, 

Lawyer, 



duchess. 

editress. 

electress. 

empress. 

enchantress. 

executrix. 

foundress. 

giantess. 

goddess. 

goody. 

governess. 

heiress. 

heroine, 
hostess. 

huntress, 
idolatress, 
infanta, 
instructress. 
Have no 
> corresponding 
feminine. 



Prophet, 

Proprietor, 

Shepherd, 

Signor, 

Songster, 

Sorcerer, 

Spectator, 

Sultan, 

Tailor, 

Testator, 

Teacher, 

Teamster, 

Tiger, 

Traitor, 

Tutor, 

Tzar, 

Victor, 

Waiter, 

Widower, 

Have no 

corresponding ^ 

masculine. 



prophetess. 

proprietress 

shepherdess. 

signora. 

songstress. 

sorceress. 

spectatrix. 

sultana. 

tailoress. 

testatrix. 

teachress. 

tigress, 
traitress, 
tutress, 
tzarina. 
victoress 
waitress, 
widow. 
" coquette 

hag. 
, laundress. 



3. By affixing or suffixing a ilistinguisliing Word. 

Cbc^-sparrow, Aen-sparrow. Mer-man, mer-maid. 

English-man, Eaglish-i(?oma?i, School-?nas^er, school-mistress. 

Grandma ^/ler J grand-mo^^er. Turkey -gohhleVj turkey-Ae?i. 

^<3-goat, s7i6-goat, BucJc-rsihhitj c7oe-rabbit. 

3ia7i-servant, maic?-servant. il/a?e-descend- /cT/iaZe-descend- 

il[/a?«;--child, /ema?e-child. ants, ants. 



&c. 



&c. 



&c. 



Note 1.-— The various callings of men and women, differ in 
somq respects ; and hence, certain nouns lack either the mascu- 
line or feminine form. But in the progress of society, certain 
fallings are filled at one time by one sex, and at another time 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

by the opposite one, or by botb; in which, case, anew word must 
be coined to distinguish the sex, and the law of formation becomes 
an important grammatical question. From the third method of 
expressing a difference of gender, it is evident that the distin- 
guishing-^ 0^T> method shoidd he used only with those words which 
do not refer to the sex of the ohject represented ; that is, with such 
generic terms^ as include both sexes; thus — GOAT, rabbit, SPAR- 
ROW, are generic names, denoting certain classes of animals, 
without referring at all to their gender. So also with child, 
DESCENDANT, SERVANT, &c.;they are generic, and in themselves 
do not distinguish the gender. Not so with such words as doctor, 
POET, TEACHER, &c., for these words designate certain offices filled 
by males, and are of the masculine gender; hence, such expressions 
as female doctor , female teacher , are incorrect, as the term fe- 
male is used adjectively, and may mean a teacher of females^ or 
a teacher (mas.) who is a female; neither of which expresses 
grammatically the idea intended. When, for instance, a music 
teacher is spoken of, the question naturally arises. Of what sex? 
Hence, I have inserted the word teacheress or teachress as the 
term which should, and will be used before many years. 

72. The possessive case of nouns is formed as follows, viz : 
(1.) If the nominative of a common noun ends in an s sound 

(s, ss, ce, or 56,) an ' (apostrophe) is suffixed; as, For con- 
science' sake, 

(2.) If the nominative ends in any other sound, whether 
the noun be singular or plural, 's is suffixed; Man^ man's; 
men, men's. 

73. Exception. — In forming tlie possessive case of proper nouns 
ending in an s sound, it is customary to add 's, which is equivalent to 
an additional syllable; as, Prentice's (pronounced jt^ren^^mes) Poems. 
This is in accordance with the Saxon language, in which the possessive 
case was formed by suffixing is or es ; as, Lordes, Lord's. 

74. Give the feminine or masculine corresponding to the 
folloioing words : 

Bachelor, belle, doe, earl, lass, niece, son, wizard, nun, swain, 
youth, czar, don, hero, huntress, instructor, teacher, negro, sultan, 
gentleman, he-goat. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



37 



rl. 






'1. Proper. 

2. Common. 

3. Collective, 

4. Abstract. Note. 

5. Verbal. Note. Remark. 




1st Person. 
2d Person. 
3d Person. 






o 
s 



II. 





u 



a 



s 

e 
iii.:2 



1^ 
S 



^4 

s 

115 




a. Singular. 
6. Plural. 



Masculine. 



1 £s 



{5; 



Feminine. 



■{i 



Neuter. Note 

Nominative. 

Possessive. 

Objective. 

a. General Rule. 



h. Exceptions. 



{\\. 



fi- 
ll. 

III. 
IV. 

V. 1,2,3,4,5,0,7,8,9. 
3, 4, 5, G, 7. 



{2. 



c. Remarks 

^ d. Notes. 

u ( "-^ 

■ mm ^ ^' I^ifferent words. 

' ' ' ~ "iferent terminations. 

Distinguishing word. Note, 



9S 

U 



o S 2 ^ 5. Di 
•^1 I- Di: 



« ^ ) a. Rule 1. 
• I § < b. Rule 2. 

^W I ^. Exception. 



Nom. 


Boy 


Boys 


Poss, 


Boy^s 


Boys' 


Obj. 


Boy 


Boys 

0-^— 



88 ENGLISH GRAIVIMAR. 



Declemsion of Xounis, 

Singular, Plural. Singular, Plural, 

Fly Flies 

Fly's Flies' 

Fly Flies. 



LESSON YIII. 
Personal and Indefinite Pronouns. 

76. A Prononu is a word substituted for the name of 

an object present to tbe mind. 

Remark. — A Pronoun represents the object or noun to which it 
relates. 

77. There are three kinds of Pronouns, viz : 

I. Personal. 

II. Indefinite. 

III. ConjnnctiTe. 

78. A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun which shows 
the relation of an object to the speaker; as, I (the 
teacher) give YOU (the student) IT (the book). 

79. There are three kinds of Personal Pronouns, viz: 

(a.) Simple. 
(6.) Compound. 
(c.) Adjectival. 

80. A Simple Personal Pronoun is a pronoun which 
shows simply the relation of an object to the speaker; as, 
I wrote; YOU spoke; HE laughs. 

81. Declension of Simple Personal Pronouns. 





First Person. 


Second Person. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Siyigular. 


Plural. 


Nominative. 


I 


we 


thou 


you or ye 


Possessive. 


My 


our 


thy 


your 


Objective. 


Me 


us 


thee 


you 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 39 

Third Person. 

Singular. Plural, 

nascnlinc. Feminine. Neuter. Any Gender. 

Nominative, He she it they 

Possessive, His her its their 

Objective. Him her it them 

Remark. — You, the second person plural, is used, whether one 
or more persons are addressed. This is an idiom common to the 
modern languages, French, German, Spanish, &c. ; as, You are ; you 

WERE. 

82. A Compound Personal Pronoun is a pronoun 
which shows the relation of an object to the speaker in an 
emphatic manner; as James hurt himself. 

83. The Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by suffixing 
self for the singular, and selves for the plural to the posses- 
sive form of the Simple Personal Pronouns of the first and 
second persons, and to the objective form of the third person. 

Declension of Compound Personal Pronouns. 

First Person. Second Person, Third Person. 

Singular. Myself yourself, thyself himself, herself, itself 

Plural. Ourselves yourselves themselves 

84. An Adjectival Personal Pronoun is a pronoun 
which shows that the object to which it refers is possessed 
by the object which it represents; as The hook is mine. 

Remark 1. — Mine refers to book, and shows that the object book is 
possessed by the speaker, the person whom mine represents. 

Remark 2. — The Adjectival Personal Pronouns and the possessive 
form of the Personal Pronouns agree in person, number and 
gender with the possessor, and not with the thing possessed as 
the Possessive Pronouns in the Latin, Greek and French languages do. 

Declension of Adjectival Personal Pronouns. 

First Person, Second Person. Third Person, 

Singular, Mine thine his, hers, its 

Plural, Ours yours theirs 

85. An Indefinite Pronoun is a pronoun which does 
not refer to any particular object, but represents a general 
antecedent; as, One should not get angry at oi^e' s friend. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

86. There are three kinds of Indefinite Pronouns, viz : 

(a.) Sintple. 

(h.) Correlative, (Partitive, or Reciprocal.) 

(c.) CompoundL. 

87. The Simple are one and none, and sometimes they. 

88. The Correlative are tlie one — the other; one— an- 
other; isome— othersi ; one another; each other. 

89. The Compound Indefinite Pronoun is one's-self. 
Remark. — One, another and other are declined like nouns, viz: 

Singular, Plural. Singular, Singular, Plural, 
Singular, One ones another other others 

Possessive, One's ones' another^s other's others' 

Objective, One ones another other others 

90. Exercise VII. 

Select the Pronouns from the following sentences^ and tdl the 
species and properties of each, 

1. If we would improve our minds by conversation, it is a 
great happiness to be acquainted with persons wiser than 
ourselves. 

2. It is a piece of useful advice, therefore, to get the favor 
of their conversation frequently; but, if they are reserved, we 
should use all obliging methods to draw out of them what may 
increase our own knowledge. 

3. The book is not mine, and I cannot lend it. 

4. They fled, some, one way; others, another. 

5. They say he is a man who minds his own business. 



LESSON IX. 
Conjimctiye Pronouns. 

91. There are three kinds of Conjunctive Pronouns, viz. 
(a.) Relative. 
{h.) Compounil Relative. 
( c.) Interrogative. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 41 

TtEMARK. — Coniunctive Pronouns are species of subordinate connec- 
tives. 

92. A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun that represents 
some preceding word in the same sentence to which it con- 
nects, as a modifier, the clause of which it forms a part ; 
as. The man whom I loved^ is dead. 

93. The Relative Pronouns are wlio, which, that and as. 
"^"ho represents persons. 

Which represents the inferior animals, objects of the 

neuter gender and children. 
That is used to prevent a too frequent repetition of who 

and which, and should be used 

1. When the antecedent denotes both persons and things ; 
as, The man and the horse that I saw, were killed. 

2. When the clause is restrictive; as, In thoughts that 
breathe and words that hum, 

3. When its antecedent is modified by a superlative^ by 
very or by same ; as, He was the first that discovered 
it ; the same man that you saw ; the very thing that I 
wanted. 

4. When its antecedent is a relative, or is modified by no, 
not, all, any, each, every or some ; as, It is not grief that 
lids me moan. 

5. When its antecedent is a Personal Pronoun, and no 
word intervenes; as, Fall he that mw5^; TLi^ praise is 
lost WHO waits till all commend. 

As is used as a relative after siLch, many, same, and (some- 
times,) as much; as, He has such friends AS every one 
should strive to have. 

94. A Compound Relative Pronoun represents an 
indefinite antecedent; as, Whoever ivill come, may come ; 
WHAT I say, ye hioto not noiv. 

What is not a simple, but a Compound Relative Pronoun. 

95. Who, ichich and ichat are declined as follows: 

Slnj. c& Plur. Sing, di Plur. Sing. & Plur. 

Nominative. Who wbicli what, 

Possessive. Whose 

Objective. Whom whicli wbat. 

4- 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

96. The Compound Relative Pronouns are formed by suffixing 
eTer or soever to tlie forms given in § 95. 

Remark. — Ever and soever are sometimes omitted, and at other times 
separated from the relative by an intervening word ; as, Who steals my 
purse^ steals ira^h ; I am beset what way soever I go. 

97. Compound Relative Pronouns are used 

a. To introduce substantive clauses; as, What is iho- 
roughly understood^ is easily described, 

b. As Concessive Connectives; as, Whatever you do, 
you cannot convince me. 

c. As Distributive Adjectives; as, I will accept vthat- 
EYER gift you are pleased to bestow. 

98. An Interrogative Pronoun is a pronoun that re- 
presents the answer to the question which it asks ; as, Who 
came with you ? JoHisr. 

99. The Interrogative Pronouns are wlio, wiiieli and wliat, 

used to ask questions. 

WIftO inquires for the name, or, when that is given, for some 
description of person ; as, Who ivas Blennerhasset f 

WMcli inquires for a particular one of several persons or 
things ; as, Which is yours f 

Wltat inquires for the kind of thing, or for the character 
or occupation of a person ; as, What have you ? What art 
ihouf What is hef 

100. Exercise YHI. 

Select the Conjunctive Pronouns from the following sentences, 
and tell to what species they belong. 

1. He that studies English literature without the lights of 
classical learning, loses half the charms of its sentiment and 
style. 

2. Who that reads the poetry of Gray, does not feel that it is 
the refinement of classical taste which gives such inexpressible 
vividness and transparency to its diction? 

3. Who that reads Pope and Dryden, does not perceive in 
them the disciples of the old school, whose genius was inflamed 
by the heroic verse of antiquity ? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



43 



4. Mark but my fall and that that ruined me. 

5. Whoever yields to temptation, debases himself with a 
debasement from which he can never arise. 

6. Whatsoever seeming retrogressions there may be, in the 
final comparison of the ages there is an undeniable advancement. 

7. The tree that thou sawest, which grew and was strong, 
whose height reached unto the heavens and the sight thereof 
to all the earth; whose leaves were fair and the fruit thereof much, 
and in it was meat for all; under which the beasts of the field 
dwelt, and upon whose branches the fowls of heaven had their 
habitation; it is thou, King, that art grown and become strong. 

Remark. — Thereof is sometimes a Relative Pronoun in tlie Posses- 
sive Case. 



C 







I. 



II. 



III. 



o 









o 



{1: 



1. Simple. Declension. 
Compound. << 

Adjectival. 



'1. Simple. Declension. 

2. Correlative. *' 

3. Compound. 



1. Relative Pronouns. 



fWho 
J Whicli 
1 That 

[As 



Declension. 

Uses 1,2,8,4,5. 



rWho \ 

2. Compound Relatives. \ Which \ 

( What j 
rWho Use. 

3. Interrogatives. \ Which " 

(what ** 



ever 

or 

soever 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

LESSON X, 

Classification of Adjectiyes, 

101. An Adjective is a word which expresses some 
quality or limitation of an object. 

102. There are three classes of Adjectives, viz: 

I. I>istributiTes. 
II. I>eftiiitives. 
III. Descriptives. 

103. A Distributive is a word used with an appellative 
to show that it is taken in a general or indefinite sense ; 
as, The weather is somewhat colder. 

Kemabk. — The term Appellative includes common and collective 
Nouns. 

104. Distributives include 

1. Articles. 

a. The Indefinite Articles a or an. 
Remark. — A is used before words commencing with a Consonant- 
sound ; as, A unit ; A eulogy ; such a one. 

h. The Definite Article tlie used distributively. 
Remark. — Whenever the refers to a previously mentioned or well- 
known object, it is a Definitive ; as. The old oak ; The man is dead, 

2. Pronominal Adjectives 

a. The Distributive^ viz: each, every, either, 

neitlier and many-a. 
h. The Indefinite, viz : any and all. 

3. The Compound Relatives wlaicliever and what- 

ever. 

105. A Definitive is a word used with an appellative 
to particularize an object ; as. That tree is large. 

106. Definitives include 

1. The Definite Article the referring to a pre- 

viously mentioned or well-known object. 

2. Pronominal Adjectives. 

a. The Demonstrative^ viz : thiss, theise ; that, 
those ; the former, the latter ; the same ; 
yon or yonder, and very. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 45 

b. The Indefinite, viz: one, other, another; 
both, such, several, else. 

c. The Interrogative which and what. 

d. Tho, Adjectival^ viz: mine, ours ; thine, yours ; 
his, hers, its, theirs. 

e. The Emphatic own. 

3. Numeral Adjectives. 

a. The Indefinite, viz : a lew, few, many, sun- 
dry, clivers, little and much. 

h. The Cardinal, viz : one, two, three, &c. 

c. The Ordinal^ viz : first, second, third, &c. 

d. The Multiplicatives^ viz : single, double, du- 
plex, two-fold, triple, &c. 

4. Proper Adjectives; as, American, Dutch, 

English, Newtonian, Platonic. 

107. A Descriptive is a word used to describe the age^ 
coloVj condition^ hahit^ place^ quality^ shape, size, tempera- 
ture, time, or weight of an object; as. An old man; the 
"SiEjy flag, &c. 

108. There are three kinds of Descriptive Adjectives, viz : 

1. Qualifying, such as designate a quality; as, Good 

men ; sweet apples ; delicious pears, 

2. Participial, such as no longer express activity or 

passivity, but, by a figure of speech, designate a 
quality or condition ; as, A weeping willow ; A 
LEARNED man, 

3. Verbal, such as express a relation or an operation of 

mind; as, Nearer to thee ; desirous of glory, 

121. Exercise IX. 

Select the Adjectives from the following sentences^ and tell 
their species, 

1. A wise and good man, whether rich or poor, is a great 
blessing to any community. 

2. Three strange men were seen skulking about the premises. 

3. He had two beautiful iron-gray horses and a new carriage. 

4. Every child in the community has a right to demand from 
society an education suitable to the sphere of life it is to occupy. 

5. All men think all men mortal but themselves. 



46 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



6. Which book shall I bring you? 

7. Within a short time we have witnessed a curious and 
beautiful spectacle. 

8. An old man, not in office and never to be in office; not 
rich, but plain and simple in dress and appearance, has been 
passing through the everyday routes of travel in our country. 

9. At the last faint gash he makes, his knife, his faithful 
knife, drops from his little nerveless hand. 

10. Be not too earnest, loud, or violent in your conversation. 

11. Weigh your operations well, that they maybe significant, 
pertinent and inoffensive. 



> 

H 

< 
© 

M 

• 
O 





O 



S3 

u 



C 1. ArticleiS. 



a. Indefinite. Remarks. 
5. Definite. Hemarks. 



2. Pronominal^ 



•{: 



The Distributive. 
The Indefinite. 



V 3. 



^ 
> 



fl 
« 

« 

fi 



Compound Relative Pronouns. 

The Definite Article tlie* 
a. The Demonstrative. 
h. The Indefinite. 

c. The Interrogative. 

d. The Adjectival. 

e. The Emphatic. 



a. The Indefinite. 
h. The Cardinal. 



c. The Ordinal. 

d. The Multiplicative. ' 
Proper Adjectives. 

ri. Qualifying. 



III. Descriptives. 



2. Participial. 

3. Verbal. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 47 

LESSON XI. 
Properties and Foniis of Adjecthes. 

109. The Grammatical Properties of Adjectives are 

I. Number. 
II. Compariison* 

110. (I.) The following adjectives are used only in the singular 
number, viz: A or an, eaeli, every, many-a, tbis, 
that, one, anotlier, and the cardinal number one. 
(II.) The following words are used w^hen two only are spoken 
of, viz: both, each other, either, neither, and the 
preposition between. 

(III.) The following adjectives are used only in the plural 
number, viz : All, tMese, those, several, a few, few, 
many, divers, sundry, and the cardinal numbers 
twro, three, &c. 

(IV.) The following words are used when more than two are 
spoken of, viz : Any one, no one, none, one another, 
and the preposition among. 

111. Comparison is that property of an adjective by 
virtue of which it changes its form to express different 
degrees of quality in similar or in various objects. 

112. Descriptive Adjectives are of two kinds, viz: 

(a.) Comparable. 
(h.) Incomparable. 

113. Comparable Adjectives describe the age^ color ^ con- 
dition^ hahit^ order^ {(luality^ size^ temperature or weight of 
objects. Some few of distance^ place and time are also compared. 

114. Incomparable Adjectives describe the ybrm, material 
or shape of objects, and express all qualities that are apprehended 
intuitively. 

Note 1. — As descriptive adjectives are names of certain qualities 
and conditions of objects, of which we obtain a knowledge either 
through our perceptive or reasoning faculties, a proper distinction 
between Comparable and Incomparable Adjectives should be based 
upon the difference between the ideas thus acquired. Hence, 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note 2. — Adjectives wliicli express the accidental properties of 
matter, the moralj social^ intellectual^ physical or political condition of 
individuals or nations, or any of those qualities which exist in 
degrees^ or in Si progressive state, are comparable, 

Note 3. — Adjectives which express the essential properties of matter, 
the properties of mathematical figures, or any intuition of reason, 
are incomparable. Hence, such words as equal, level^ perpendicular^ 
square, perfect^ right^ wrong ^ &c., are not comparable, 

115. There are three degrees of Comparison, viz : 

(a.) The Positive. 

(6.) The ComparatiTe. 

(c.) The Superlative. 

116. An Adjective is in the Positive degree, "when it 
expresses a quality without reference to the same quality 
in another object, or to a different quality in the same 
object ; as, John is good. 

117. An Adjective is in the Comparative degree, when 
it expresses a quality relative to the same quality in 
another object, or to a different quality in the same object; 
as, John is wiser than Gf-eorge; Henry is more eloquent 

than LEARNED. 

118. An Adjective is in the Superlative degree, when 
it expresses a quality relative to the same quality in 
several objects; as, John K. is the best boy in school. 

119. The Comparative and Superlative degrees are 
formed 

1. By suffixing r or er for the Comparative, and st or est 
for the Superlative. 

(a.) To the positive of monosyllabic adjectives ; as, wise^ 
wiser 9 wisest • 

(b,) To dissyllabic primitives whose last syllable com- 
mences with a consonant ; as, Soli/j holier 9 holiest, 

2. By placing more or less for the Comjparative, and 
most or least for the Superlative, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



49 



(a.) Befoce the positive of dissyllabic adjectives^ wliose 

final syllable commences witli a vowel; as j Pious, 

more pious, most pious. 
{b.) Before a// derived dissyllabic adjectives ; as, Faiiltful, 

more faithful, iu.ost faithfuL 
(c.) Before all polysyllabic adjectives; as, Agreeable, 

i(ifl©re agreeable, most agreeable. 

Note 1. — The Diminutive Comparative is formed by suffixing isli, or 
by prefixing almost, rather, sliglitly, soixiewhat, &c. ; as, 
Brackish.^ almost grown, sliglatly wounded, somewhat gray. 

Note 2. — The Superlative Absolute is formed by prefixing very, 
exceeclingly, &c., to the positive; as, lie is a very good man. 

3. Irregularly. 

(a.) Those which want none of the forms. 



Positive. 
Bad 

Far 

Good 
111 

Late 

Little 

Many 
Much 

Near 
Old 



Comparative. 
worse 

farther 

better 

worse 
J later 
[ latter 
f less I 
1 lesser j 

more 

nearer 

f older 
( elder 



Superlative, 

worst 
r farmost 
j farthermost 
V- farthest 

best 

worst 

latest (time) 

last (order) 

least 

most 

f nearest (position) 
I next (order) 

oldest 

eldest 



Kemark. — Last and next are used to show the order with respect to 
time B.nd position. 



50 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



(6.) Those which want some of the forms. 



Positive, 


Comparative, 


Superlative, 




further 


furthest 
, furthermost 




hither 


hithermost 




nether 


nethermost 




under 


undermost 


Northerji 




northernmost 


Kear 




rearmost 




upper 


r upmost 
1 uppermost 




inner 


f inmost 
I innermost 




hinder 


f hindmost 
1 hindermost 




utter 


f utmost 
1 uttermost 

topmost 

bottommost 



4. Sow the degrees and shades of color are expressed. 

Note 1. — The more prominent colors are usually compared ; as, 
Black, blacker, blackest ; ivhitej whiter , whitest ; red, redder, 
reddest, &c. 

Note 2. — The prismatic colors of the solar spectrum, viz : red, 
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet, are assumed as the basis 
of color. These blend into each other so as to give rise to various 
shades and hues, with which different objects are possessed. To 
distinguish these shades and hues, the English language employs 
three methods, viz : 

(1.) The more prominent shades of color are indicated by 
special words ', as, Crimson, pink, purple, scarlet, &c. 

(2.) "Words descriptive of the hues of color are prefixed to the 
generic words ; as, KosE-r^c^, v^K-green^ ino's-graT/, &c. 

(3.) Certain words, expressive of a peculiar shade, are used; 
as, Magenta, solfervno, &c. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



51 



120. Exercise X. 

1. Form the Comparative and Superlative of the following 
Adjectives : 

large old 

little pious 

lovely serene 

much warm 

good new wise 

2. Tell the degree of Comparison of each of the folloiving 
Adjectives: 



Able 


delightful 


Active 


diligent 


Beautiful 


excellent 


Bright 


green 



Calm 



Braver 




greener 


more plentiful 


Brackish 


just somewhat scarce 


Eldest 




less very wise 


Orange 




next youthful 

C a. Singular. ^ -j-j' 

dumber. \ [ ] ttt* 

(b. Plural. J jy 




r 1- 1 




r a. Comparable. ) ( 1. 


N 




< 1.' Kindis. \ I Notes. J 2. 


W 

H 




( 6. Incomparable. J (3. 


^ 






a. Positive. 


fi 






(a. Relative. 


< 


• 




b. Comparative, -j 


b 


a 




i: Degrees, 


(/?. Diminutive. 




fa 




(a. Relative. 


^ 1 


1 




c. Superlative. -! 


s ' 


t^. Absolute. ^ 


§ « ^ 


M 

9 


fa. 


s ^ 


w 




' a. Suffixes. \ 


1 a 


CS 




u. 


c ^ 








^ 






(a. 


% 






b. Words prefixed. ^ /?. 


M 




I 3.' Formation. - 




H 






Ca. 


fii 






c. Irregularly. \ 


'fa 






u. 


fa 






r a. Notes 1 and 2. 


s. 






c?. Celo.rs. ^ f 1. 
{ p. Methods. \ 2. 



53 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XII, 
The Infinite Verb, 

122. A Verb is a word which expresses affirmation ; as, 
John WRITE6 ; James sleeps. 

Remark. — A Verb affirms an activity, a passivity or a simple mode of 
existence of its subject. 

123. The Yerb consists of 

I. The Infinite parts, including 

(1.) The Infinitives. 
(2.) The Participles. 
(3.) The Imperatives. 

II. The Finite part^, including 

(1.) The Modes. 
(2.) The Tenses. 
(3.) The Forms. 
(4.) Agreement (in person and number.) 

124. The Infinitive expresses the abstract idea of the 

verb without limitation as to agreement with its subject; 

as. To love, to have loved. 

Remark. — The particle to, the sign of the Infinitive, was intro- 
duced into the language in the 13th century. Primarily it denotes a 
moviny forward, and at first expressed an aim or purpose, but at present 
it has the force of an expletive. 

125. The Participle expresses the concrete idea of the 
verb without limitation as to agreement with its subject; 
as, Loving, having loved. 

126. The Properties of the Infinite Verb are 

(a.) Form. 

(6.) Condition. 

127. The Forms of the Infinitives are 

a. The Common Active ; as^ To love. 

/3. The Progressive Active ; as, To be loving. 

y. The Passive ; as, To be loved. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 53 

128. The Forms of the Participles are 

a. The Active ; as^ Loving^ having loved, 

/?. The Passive; as, (Being) loved, having been loved. 

y. The Past; as, Loved (in the Relative Tenses.) 

129. The Infinite Verb represents the affirmation without the 
idea of time^ but expresses the Condition of completeness or 
incompleteness. Hence, the Infinitives and Participles are de- 
nominated Present (incomplete) or Perfect (complete). 

130. The Imperatives are subjected to the same laws of con- 
struction as the Infinitives and Participles, and hence are classed 
with the Infinite verb ; as, John^ bring me the hook. 

Remark. — The Imperatives are without limitation as to agreement 
with a subject. 

131. Paradigm of Infinitives^ Participles and Imperatives. 

Ini&nitives. 

Common-Active. Progressive- Active. Passive, 

Present. To love. to be loving. to be loved. 

Perfect, To have loved, to have been loving, to have been loved. 







Participles. 








Active. Passive. 


Past. 


Present. Loving. 


(being) 


loved, 




Perfect. Having 


loved. having 


been loved loved. 






Imperatives. 










Singular. 




Plural 


\st Person. 




Let ire love. 




Let us love. 


2d Person, 




Love. 




Love. 


^d Person. 




Let him love. 




Let them love. 



132. Infinitives and Participles are used 

(a.) To form certain parts of the finite verb. 

(h.) To abridge discourse. 
5* 



54 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



133. Exercise XL 

Analyze the following sentences^ and point out the Infinite 
Parts. 

1. He must now cut his way in a new direction, to get from 
under the overhanging mountain. 

2. He is dangling there in view of the trembling multitude, 
who are shouting and leaping for joy. 

3. Lying is a great sin against God, who gave us the tongue 
to speak truth, and not falsehood. 

4. It is the province of America to build, not palaces, but 
men ; to exalt, not titled stations, but general humanity ; to 
dignify, not idle repose, but assiduous industry; to elevate, not 
the few, but the many; and to make herself known, not so much 
in individuals as in herself; spreading to the highest possible 
level, but striving to keep level still, universal education, pros- 
perity and honor. 







'1. 


Infinitives. 






• 


' I. Species. 


2. 


Participles. 








.^• 


Imperatives. 




> 








'a. 


Active. 


^ 
N 








'1/ Infinitives - 


b. 


Progressive 






1. 


Forms ^ 




'a. 


Passive. 
Active. 


W - 


^ 






2.^ Participles - 


h. 


Passive. 




11. Properties. 






c. 


Past. 






2. 


C a. Present. 
Condition^ 

{h. Perfect. 






^ III. Uses, &c. 


1. 
2. 


To form Finite Parts. 
To Abridge discourse. 








3. 


Paradi| 


^ms. 







ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 55 

LESSON XIII, 
Properties of the Finite Verb. Mode. 

134. The Properties of the Finite Verb are 

1. ]N[o<le. 

2. Tense. 

3. Form. 

4. Agreement (in person and number). 

135. Mode is that property of the Finite Verb which 
shows how it asserts an attribute of its subject. 

136. An Attribute may be asserted 

(a.) As a fact or a question (Indicatively). 

[b.) As a contingency, or as a conception of the mind 

(Subjunctively). 
{c.) As something dependent upon the will of the speaker 

(Imperatively). 

137. There are, therefore, three Modes, viz: 

a. The Indicative. 

b. The ^Subjunctive. 

c. The Imperative. 

Remark. — Writers of English Grammar usually reckon four modes, 
the Potential in addition to these. This arises from confounding mode 
and form. In the Latin, Greek, German, French, Spanish and other 
languages, some of which are highly synthetic, there is no form for a 
Potential Mode. Besides, it is impossible to conceive of an attribute's 
being asserted in any other way than as something real, something 
imaginary, or something dependent on the speaker's will. 

138. The Indicative Mode asserts an attribute as a 
fact or a question; as, Daniel writes ; does Daniel write ? 

139. The Subjunctive Mode asserts an attribute as a 
contingency or a conception of the mind; as, Though he 
SLAY me., yet will I serve him ; Zcould paint the bow upon 
the bended heavens ; he may (possibly) come ; lie can write. 



56 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



140. The Imperative Mode asserts an attribute as de- 
pendent on the will of the speaker ; as. Go, sin no more; 
TJiou SHALT not STEAL ; You MAY (are permitted) go ; Let 
there 1^^ light. 

Note. — The student should carefully distinguish between the 
modes of the verb and the/orm^ used to express them. The former 
must be gathered from the signification, while the latter is determined 
by auxiliaries, or some other external characteristic. 

Ml. Exercise XII. 

Analyze tlie following sentences^ and tell the mode of the verbs: 

1. Never speak anyiJiing for a truth, which you know or be- 
lieve to be false. 

2. Sickness is a sort of early old age ; it teaches us a diffidence 
in our earthly state, and inspires us with thoughts of the future. 

3. Adversity is the mint in which God stamps upon us his 
image and superscription. 

4. In this matter, men may learn of insects. 

5. The ant will repair her dwelling, as often as the mischiev- 
ous foot crushes it ; the spider will exhaust life itself, before he 
will live without a web ; the bee can be decoyed from her labor 
neither by plenty nor scarcity. 

6. If summer be abundant, it toils none the less ; if it be 
parsimonious of flowers, the tiny laborer sweeps a wider circle, 
and by industry repairs the fiugality of the summer. 

7. Man should be ashamed to be rebuked in vain by the 
spider, the ant, and the bee. 









1. Definition. 

2. Possible Modes. Remark. 

a. Indicative. 

3. Species. \ b. Subjunctive. 

c. Imperative. Note. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57 

LESSOR XIV. 
Pi'operties of the Finite Terb. Tense. 

142. Tense is that property of the Finite Verb which 
relates to the time which its affirmation expresses. 

143. Time is distinguished as 

a. Present. 
h. Past. 
c. Futnre. 

144. The ajQ&rmation of the verb may be expressed, 

(a.) As something incomplete at a certain time {Ahso- 

lutein/), 
{b.) As something merely momentary in past time, without 

reference to the beginning, continuance or completion of 

the action [Aorist), 

(c.) As something complete with reference to some other 
time [Relatively), 

There are, therefore, three classes of tenses: 

1. Absolute* 

2. Aorist. 

3. Relative, / 

145. There are three Absolute Tenses : 

a. The Present-Imperfect. 
h. The Past-Imperfect. 
c. The Future-Imperfect. 

146. The Present-Imperfect Tense affirms something 
as transpiring in present time ; as, John writes ; John is 

WRITING. 

147. The Past-Imperfect Tense affirms something as 

transpiring in past time ; as, John WAS writing. 

Remark. — This is the descriptive tense of the English language. It 
also expresses what is customary or lohat continues to take place. 

148. The Future-Imperfect Tense affirms something as 
going to transpire ; as, John will write 



58 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



149. Tliere is but one Aorist tense, viz : The Past. 

150. The Past Tense is the Preterite of the verb and 

expresses simple momentary action in past time, without 
reference to its heginning^ continuance or termination ; as, 

John WROTE. 

Remark. — This is the historical or narrative tense of the English 
language. 

151. There are three Relative Tenses; 

(a.) The Present-PerFect. 
{b.) The Past-Perfect. 
{c.) "The Future-Perfect. 

152. The Present-Perfect Tense affirms something as 
completed in present time ; as, Zhave written. 

153. The Past-Perfect Tense affirms something as 
completed prior to some specified past time ; as, I had 
WRITTEN (before you came). 

154. The Future-Perfect Tense affirms something that 
will be completed prior to some specified future time ; as, 
John WILL HAVE WRITTEN (before he receives your letter). 





1. Definition. 




• 


2. Time. 


5. 
c. 


• 




1/ Absolute. - 








■3 


3. Species. 


2/ Aorist. 


1 




^ 3/ Relative. - 



a. Present-Imperfect. 

b. Past-Imperfect. 

c. Future-Imperfect. 
Past. 

a. Present-Perfect. 

b. Past-Perfect. 

c. Future-Perfect. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



59 



155. Exercise XIII. 

Analyze the following sentences^ and tell the mode and tense 
of each verb. 

1. Your parents have watched over your helpless infancy, 
and have conducted you, with many a pang, to an age at which 
your mind is capable of manly improvement. 

2. Honor and success will probably attend you. 

3. You will have an external source of consolation. 

4. We find man placed in a world where he has, by no means, 
the disposal of the events that happen. 

5. If he had come in time, I would have accompanied him. 

6. You shall have friends, in proportion to your merit. 



LESSOR XV. 
Forms of tlie Terb. 

156. The Finite Yerb has nine Forms^ viz : 

(a.) The Comnion Form ; as, He writes ; he wrote, 
(h.) The Empliatic Form; as, He does write; he did 

WRITE. 

[c.) The Interrogative Form ; as, Does he write ? did 

he write ? 
[d.) The Solemn Form; as, Thou writest ; Ag writeth. 
[e. ) The Progressive Form ; as, He is writing ; he 

WAS WRITING. 

(/. ) The Passive Form; as, The letter is written. 
[g.) The Conditional Form ; as, If he write ; had he 

written, 
(/i,) The Complex Form; as, 



He ^ 



MAY 

CAN 

MUST 

WILL 

SHALL 



MIGHT ^ 
COULD I 

WOULD 
SHOULD 



WRITE, HAVE WRITTEN. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

({. ) The ImpeFative Form; as. 

1st Person, let me t^'RITE ; let us write. 
2d Person. John^ write; Boi/s^ vrRiTE. 
3d Person, let lam write; let them write. 

157. The Commoii form represents the attribute as 
transpiring in the ordinary way. 

158. The Esupliatic form expresses emphasis. 

Bemark. — It is used in the present-imperfect and past tenses, and is 
formed by placing the auxiliary do before the present infinitive, the 
sign to being omitted. 

159. The Interrogative form expresses inquiry. 

Bemark.— The Interrogative form places the subject after the aux- 
iliary. 

160. The ^olesun form is used in the Scriptures, in 
poetry, in prayer, and by the Friends. 

Bemark. — It is formed by suffixing st and til as endings of the 2d 
and od persons singular of the pre^eiat and past tenses. 

161. The Progressive form expresses something as 
continuing to take place. 

Bemark. — It is formed by annexing the present active parti- 
ciple to the various forms of the verb to be. 

162. The Passive form exipr esses passivity. 

Bemark. — It is formed by annexing the present passive par- 
ticiple to the various forms of the verb to fee. 

1G3. The Coisditioiial form expresses contingency or a 
conception of the mind. 

Bemark. — It is formed by using the present infinitive without 
the sign to for the present tense, and the first person plural 

of the preterite for the past tense in all the numbers and persons. 

164. The Complex form expresses capability^ contin- 
gency ^ determination or obligation. 

Bemark. — The complex form employs the auxiliaries may, might; 
can, could; must; tcill, would; shall, should, with the infinitive^ the 
sio;n to being omitted. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 

165. The imperative form expresses something de- 
pendent on the will of the speaker. 

Remark 1. — It is formed by using let in the first and third 
persons and the infinitive without to in the second person. 

Remark 2. — Sliall, will and may (when it expresses permission) 
are used in Imperative sentences, as follows, viz : 

1st Person. Will or let; as, /will go; let me go. 

2d Person. The Infinitive (to omitted), shall or may; as, Go; 

thou SHALT not steal; you may go. 
8d Person. I^et, shall or may; as, Let him go; he shall go; he 



166. Exercise XIY. 

Analyze the following sentences^ and tell the mode, tense and 
form of each verb. 

1. If I were discoursing of my nation abroad, I would be 
glad of that merit in my countrymen which now displeases me. 

2. What would I have you do ? I'll tell you, kinsman : learn 
to be wise, and practise how to thrive; that would I have you 
do ; and not to spend your coin on every bauble that you fancy. 

3. Wake your harp's music ! — louder, — higher, 

And pour your strains along ; 
And smite again each quivering wire, 
In all the pride of song ! 

4. Ho, all who labor, — all who strive ! 

Ye wield a lofty power ; 
Do with your might, do with your strength. 
Fill every golden hour ! 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XVI. 

rormation of the Principal Parts. Strong Method. 

N 167. Conjiigatioia is a method of arranging the several 
parti§»9 modes, tenses, forms, numbers and persons of 

the verb in regular order. 

168. CoDJugatioQ embraces three processes, viz; 

(1.) The formation of the Principal Parts, viz: the 
Present, the Preterite, and the Past Par- 
ticiple. 
(2.) The proper use of auxiliary verbs. 
(3.) The formation of all the other parts, &c. of the verb 
by using the principal partSy or by combining them 
with the auxiliaries. 
Remark. — The word preterite is used to express past time, and is the 
form used for our aorist tense. 

169. There are two methods of forming the preterite and past 
participle, viz : 

1 . The Strong Metliod. 

2. The Weali Mettiod. 

170. By the j^trong process, the preterite is formed from the 
present-infinitive by changing the sound of the vowel; and the pasx 
participle is formed from the present or preterite^ by annexing or sup- 
pressing n or en ; as, see. saw, SEEn ; hear^ bore, BORnE. 

171. There are three classes of Strong Verbs, viz: 
Class I. Form the past participle from the present. 
CI^ss II. Form the past participle from the preterite. 
Class III. Use the preterite for the past participle. 

172. Class I. Form the past participle from the present hi/ 
annexing n or en. 

a. Retain the lengthened wund in the past participle. 



RESENT. 


PAST. 


PAST PARTIC] 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Eat 


ate 


eaten 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



63 



PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Fly 


flew 


ilown 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Give 


gave 


given 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Grave 


graved, (r) 


graven 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lade 


laded (r) 


laden 


See 


saw 


seen 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Sit 


sat 


sat, sitten (obsolete) 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Shape 


shaped (r) 


shapen 


Spit 


spat 


spit, spitten (obsolete) 


Take 


took 


taken 


Throw 


• threw 


thrown 


!>• Shorten the vowel sound in the past participle. 


Bid 


bade 


bidden 


Bite 


bit 


bitten 


Be 


was 


been 


Chide 


chid 


chidden 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Bide 


rode 


ridden 


Rise 


rose 


risen 


Shrive 


shrove 


shriven 


Slide 


slid 


slidden 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Stride 


strode 


stridden 


Strike 


struck 


stricken 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


Thrive 


throve 


thriven 


Write 


wrote 


written 


c. Drop n or en in the Past Participle, 




Become 


became 


become (n) 


Come 


came 


come (n) 


Class II. 


Form the past participle from the preterite. 


PRESENT. 


PRETERITE. 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 


Bear 


bare (s) bore (p) 


borne 


Break 


brake (s) broke (p) 


broken 



64 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



RESENT. 


PRETERITE. 




PAST PARTICIPLE 


Choose - 


chose 




chosen 


Cleave 


clave (s) clove 




cloven 


Forget 


forgot 




forgotten 


Freeze 


froze 




frozen 


Get 


gat (s) got (p) 




gotten 


Lie (v. i.) 


lay 




, lain 


Shear 


(shore) sheared 


(r) 


shorn 


Speak 


,. spake (s) spoke 


(p) 


spoken 


Steal 


stole 




stolen 


Seethe 


sod 




sodden 


Swear 


sware (s) swore 


(p) 


sworn 


Swell 


swelled (r) 




swollen 


Tear 


tore 




torn 


Tread 


trod 




trodden 


Weave 


wove 




woven 


Wear 


wore 




worn 



Class III. Use the preterite for the past participle. 
a. The preteiite differs from the present. 



PRESENT. 


PRETERITE. 




PAST PARTICIPLE 


Abide 


abode 




abode 


Begin 


began (s) begun 


(p) 


begun 


Bind 


bound 




bound 


Cling 


clung 




clung 


Dig 


dug 




dug 


Drink 


drank (s) drunk 


(p) 


drunk 


Find 


found 




found 


Fling 


flang (s) flung 




flung 


Go 


went 




gone 


Grind 


ground 




ground 


Hang 


hung 




hung 


Hold 


held 




held 


Bing 


rang (s) rung 




rung 


Sing 


sang (s) sung 




sung 


Sink 


sank (s) sunk 




sunk 


Shine 


shone 




shone 


Shrink 


shrank 




shrunk 


Sling 


slung 




slung 


Slink 


slunk 




slunk 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



65 



PRESENT. 

Spin 

Spring 

Stand 

Stave 

Sting 

Stick 

Stink 

String 

Swing 

Swim 

Wind 

Win 

Wring 



rHETERITE. 

spun 

sprang (s) sprung 

stood 

stove 

stung 

stuck 

stank (s) stunk 

strung 

swung 

swam (s) swum 

wound 

won 

wrung 



PAST PARTICIPLE. 

spun 

sprung 

stood 

stove 

stung 

stuck 

stunk 

strung 

swung 

swum 

wound 

won 

wrung 



b* Tlie principal parts are alike. 



Beat 

Burst 

Let 

Put 

Eun 

Set 



beat 
burst 
let 
put 
ran (s) run 
set 



beat 

burst 

let 

put 

run 

set 









e 



h 
^ 
b 



f I.' Processes. 



II.' Metliods. 



^ V III/ Strong Verbs. 



r 1. 

2. 

3. Kemark. 
1. Strong. 
2 Weak. 

' Class I. 

Class II. 
Class III. 



b. 



G-^ 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

173. Exercise XT. 

Aiiali/ze the following sentences^ and give the principal parts 
of each verb. 

1. I bade liim write his copy. 

2. Tlie dog, wliich the boy was driving, bit him. 1 

3. Come and choose which you will have, 1 

4. The river, swollen by the recent rains, swept impetuously 
on. 

5. I forgot to lay the book on the table. 

6. Fancy weaves a web of folly. | 

7. He cleaved to a rock cloven by the frost. 

8. The ills of life should be patiently borne. 

9. Sit down and rest. 
Even here I will put off my hope, and keep it 
No longer for my flatterer ; he is drown'd 
Whom thus we stray to find, and the sea mocks 
Our frustrate search on land. Well, let him go. 

10. What ! Shall these papers lie like tell-tales here J 
If thou respect them, best to take them up. 
Nay, I was taken up for laying them down. 



II 



LESSON XYII, 

Formation of the Principal Parts. Weak Method. 

174. Weak Verbs are those which form the preterite 
and past participle by annexing t, d, ed, or the syllable 
cd to the present^ the stem-vowel being sometimes short- 
ened or changed. 

Remark 1. By stem-vowel is meant the vowel in the principal part 
of the verb ;as, Lose, lost, forget, forgotten. 



ENGIISH GRAMMAR. 



67 



Remark 2. — The elementary sounds of the English language are 
as follows, viz: 



Aspirates. SubTOcalis. 



Vocals. 



W W M 



o 
p 



SI 




9 



ft 



09 ^ 



101 ss 
as 



% 





p 

so 



> 



09 

o 

S9 

M 
ft 
SB 
ft 
ft 

«2 



Id 

s 





ft 



M 
Ml 

3 

•*« 

ft 






^ 

P- 



o 



CQ 


t-< 




t3- 


o 




O 







^ 


qq 




^tf 


o: 


? 


-^o 


o 
o 


P 


'N o 

^ o 


CI 


5ft 



■:} 



}- 



:} 





ft 



P 
P 
P 






CK5 



M. ^ 



-1 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 3. — Tlie organs of speech consist of 

[a.) The Respiratory Organs, viz: The windpipe, the bron- 
chial tubes, the lungs, the diaphragm, and the abdominal, costal 
and intercostal muscles. 

{h.) The Vocal Organs, viz: The vocal chords. 

(c.) The Articniatory Organs, viz: The lips, the teeth, the 
roof of the mouth, the tongue, the uvula, the cavities of the 
nose, and the larynx with its cartilages and muscles. Sounds 
modified, by or obstructed at the lips are called labials ; by 
the teeth, dentals ; by the hard palate or roof of the mouth, pal- 
atals; by the soft palate or uvula, gutturals; by the tongue, 
LiNGUALS, and by the nose, nasals. 

Remark 4. — The t-sounds are t, ed and d. 

175. Rules for forming the Preterite and Participles. 

1. For forming the present participle, 

a. If tbe present ends in silent e, preceded by tlie vowel i 
or by a consonant, change i into y, elide the e and suf- 
fix ing ; as Give^ giving ; abide^ abiding ; die^ c/ying ; 
iie, laying ; de, /ying ; /ie, ^ying. 

Eemark. — The e is retained in dyeing, singeing and swingeing to 
iistinguish them from dying, singing and swinging. 

Z>. If the present ends in a single consonant preceded by a 
short vowel, or in a polysyllable accented on the ultimate, 
double the final consonant and suffix ing ; as, i^un, 

rwnning ; forget, fo7yetting» 

2. For forming the preterite and past participle, 

a. If the present ends in a vocal or subvocalj the sound of d 

must be added ; as, Accuse (pro. accuze), accuseii, 

b. If the 2jrese7it ends in an aspirate, the sound of t must be 

added ; as, Creep, crept ; sleep, slept, 

c. If the present ends in a vowel other than e, in a doubled 

consonant, or in an aspirate other than d or t, ed is 
annexed, but it forms no additional syllable ; as, Cn/j 
cried. ; toss, tossed ; slip, slipped. 

Remark 1. — After an aspirate, ed is pronounced like t« 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



69 



Remark 2. Verbs derived from the French and Latin form their 
preterite and past participle by annexing the syllable ed ; as, Add^ 
added., 

176. There are three classes of Weak Verbs, viz : 
Class I. Preserve the stem-vowel. 
Class II. Shorten the stem-vowel. 
Class III. Change the stem-vowel. 

177. Class I. Preserve the stem-vowel. 

a. Add the sound of d. or t in the preterite ayid past participle ; 
aSj 

PRESENT. PRET. & P. P. PRESENT. PRET. & P. P, 



Accuse 


accused 


Expel 


expelled 


Betray 


betrayed 


Live 


lived 


Cry 


cried 


Slip 


slipped 


Dip 


dipped 


Toss 


tossed 



Remark. — To this species belongs a large number of English verbs. 

b. Add the syllable ed; as, 

PRESENT. PRET. & P. P. PRESENT. PRET. & P. P. 

Add added Insult insulted 

Invite invited Obstruct obstructed 

Instruct instructed "Waste wasted 

Remark. — This species of verbs is derived from the Latin and 
French. 

c. Simply change d into t, the stem-vowel being short ; as, 

present. PRET. & p. p. PRESENT PRET. & P. P. 

Bend bent Gild gilt 

Blend blent Gird girt, &c. 

d. Retain the t since they end in t, and their stem-vowel is 

short; as, 

PRESENT. PRET. & P. P. PRESENT. PRET. & P. P. 

Cast cast Hit hit 

Cost cost Hurt hurt 

Cut cut Knit knit 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

178. elastic II. Shorten the stem-vowel. 
a. Long e in me becomes e in met ; as, 

PRESENT. PRET & P. P. PRESENT PRET. & P. P. 



Creep crept Feel 


felt 


Deal dealt Kneel 


knelt 


Eat eat (et) Flee 


fled, &c. 


b, Lo7ig slender o changed into o (short) ; 


as, 


PRESENT, PRET. & P. P. PRESENT. 


PRET. & P. P. 


Lose lost Shoe 


shod 



c. Vowel shortened and V changed into f ; as, 

PRESENT. PRET. & P. P. PRESENT. PRET. & P. P. 



Bereave 
Cleave 



bereft 
cleft 



Leave 



left 



179. Claisis III, Change the stem-vowel 

a. Drop one 1 in the Preterite and Past Participle. 

PRESENT. PRET. & P. P. PRESENT. PRET. & P. P. 



Sell 


sold 


Tell 


told 


Shall 


should 


Will 


would 


b. Change both the vowel and the final consonant of the stem. 


PRESENT. 


PRET. & P. P. 


PRESENT. 


PRET. k P. P. 


Beseech 


besougbt 


Owe 


ought 


Bring 


brougbt 


Seek 


sought 


Buy 


bought 


Teach 


taught 


Can 


could 


Think 


thought 


Catch 


caugbt 


Work wrought, worked 


c. Preserve the stem-vowel but change final consonant. 1 


PRESENT. 


PRET. & P. P. 


PRESENT. 


PRET. & P. p. H 


Make 


made 




quoth I 


Have 


had 


Wis 


wist and wot 1 


Must 




Worth 


i 



ENGLISH GRAM3IAR. 



71 



180. Exercise XTI. 

Analyze the foUoicing sentences^ and give the jyrincijyal parts 
of each verh^ and tell to what class it helongs. 

1. I am not prepared to answer. 

2. We must study, if we wish to improve. 

3. James thinks that his friends are learned. 

4» The scales were turned, and the enemy were routed. 
5. The rook's nest was destroyed. 







^ 1. 










2 




• 


r \' Reiuarli:^. ^ 




(a. 


pa 
> 




3. . 
^ 4. 


5. 




II.' Rales. 


r 1- ^ 


''«. Remark. 

u. 

'a. 






. 2. - 


b. 


• 
9 




. c. 


Remarks, j ^ 
a. Remark. 


c 


. 


' I. 




h. Remark. 
c. 


u 


^ III.' Classes^. 


II. 




d, 

'a, 
b, 

" a. 






III. 




b. 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XVIII. 
Auxiliary Yerbs. 

181. An Auxiliary verb is one by the aid of which 
another verb is conjugated. 

182. The auxiliary verbs are do, be, liave, shall, will, 
may, can, must and let. 

Remark 1. — Bo^ he and have are sometimes used as principal verbs, 
and also as Pro-verbs; as, Did you tell him? /did. 

Remark 2. — The verbs hid, dare, feel, find, hear, help, make, need, please, 
see and its equivalents, are frequently used with other verbs, in which 
case to is omitted; as, The people '^e^t perishing. Bid him come. 

183. Do (Sax. DON, to do) is used in the Present Indicative 
and Imperative, and the Past Indicative to express emphasis. 
In interrogative sentences, it denotes inquiry; as, /do write ; 
DO come ; he DID come ; did 7ie come ? 

184. Be (Sax. beon, to he Jixed^ to exist) is used to join an 
attribute to the subject, so as to affirm its inberence in the object 
represented by the subject; as, John is good. It is also used 
to predicate existence; as, There is a God^ and to form the 
Progressive and Passive Forms. 

185. Have (Sax, habban, to possess) is used to form the 
Perfect Tenses, as though an action were not complete until 
entirely possessed by its subject; as, / have ivritten. 

186. gliail (Sax. scealan, to he obliged) is used to express 
the determination of another than its subject with respect to a 
personal agent ; as. Thou shalt not steal. 

Remark. — Shall expresses the determination of the speaker. 

187. Will (Sax. WILL AN, to determine) expresses the deter- 
mination of the subject himself; as, I will not do it. 

Remark 1. — IShall is used in the first person, and will in the second 
and third persons, to form the future tense. 

Remark 2. — In interrogative sentences, shall, when emphatic, ex- 
presses perplexity ; as, What shall we do 9 

Remark 3. — Will in the first person and shall in the second and 
third persons, express something dependent on the mind of the speaker, 
and hence are used to form the Complex form of the verb and to express 
the imperative mode. 



\ 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 73^* 

^ IC'S. May, can and mui^l express power, but power emanating 
from ditlcrent sources; as /may come; you can write; he 3iust die. 

189. May (Sax. magan, to he strong^ denotes a capability 
depending on tbe will of the speaker. It expresses 

1. Permission [imperative use) \ as, You i^iAY go. 

2-. Something conceived of as possible, or a wish (sub- 
junctive use) ; as. He may (so I think) come ; May you 
ever prosper I 

190. Can (Sax. cunnan, to Jnioio^ to have poioer ivithni one^s 
self) expresses something as a capability inhering in the subject; 
as. He CAN write; tliey can swim. 

Kemark. — Can is used interrogatively, to proflFer a thing politely ; 
as, Can / sell you anything to-day ? 

191. Must (Sax. MOTAN, to he ahle, to he impellul hy the 
nature of things) denotes an impelling depending on the nature, 
constitution or fitness of things ; as, Yoic must stucli/^ if you 
would iinjorove ; we must all die; he must he checked. 

192. Exercise XYII. 

Analyze the following sentences; select the auxiliary verhs^ and 
tell what they express. 

1. He ought to have come yesterday. 

2. John would have written, had he known your post-office. 

3. William might have known that I could not come. 

4. In this sign, you shall conquer. 

5. Let me die the death of the righteous. 



.5 ^ 2 2 

S . X S S 

^ o t ^ ^ 



1^ t 

I 5 -^ g 



^ I 



8S 



^ 



fa K 



Do, be, have. 

Shall. Kemark. 1 ^1. 

[■Remarks 1 2. 

WilL J J 3. 

May. 

Can. Remark. 
Must. 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XIX. 
Formation from the Principal Parts. 

193. The Principal Parts from which are formed the 
3IodeSy Tenses, Forms, Persons and Numbers of the verb, either 
by inflectional changes or by combining them with proper aux- 
iliaries, are the following, viz : 

1. The Present Infinitive ; as^ To write. 

2. The Preterite ; as, I wrote. I 

3. The Past Participle ; as, I have written. 

4. The Present Active Participle ; as, lam writing. 

5. The Present Passive Participle ; as, It is written. 
Remark.— The Present Passive Participle is identical in form with 

the Past Participle, but differs from it in signification. 

194. (I.) — From the Present Infinitive are formed 

1. Present Indicative II 
a. Common Form ; as, John writes. 

h. Emphatic Form ; as, John does write. - y 

c. Interrogative Form; as. Does John write? If 

d. Solemn Form ; as. He writeth. j j 

2. Present Subjunctive or Imperative. ' 
a. Conditional Form: as, If John write. 

r may 

I can 
h. Complex Form; as, He -l must y write. 

I shall 

[^ will 
c. Imperative Form; as, Let him write : write. 

3. Past Indicative. 
a, (Past) Emphatic Form ; as, John did write. 

4. Past Subjunctive. 

1 might 
^^^ Id \ ^^^^^' 
should 

5. Future Indicative. 

a. Common Form ; as, John will write. 

195. (II.) — From the Preterite are formed 
1. Past Indicative. 

a. Common Form ; as, John wrote. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



75 



2. Past Subjunctive. 

a, (Common) Conditional Form; as, If John wrote. 

196. (Ill-) — From the Past Participle are derived 

1. All the Perfect Tenses. 

Remark. — These tenses are formed by annexing the Past Participle 
of any verb to the Absolute Tenses of the verb have. 

197. IV. — From the Present Active Participle is formed 

1. The Progressive Form of the verb. 

Remark. — The Progressive Form of the verb is formed by annexing 
the Present Active Participle to the verb to be in all its modes, 
tenses, Tornis, &e. 

198. V. — From the Present Passive Participle is formed 
1. The Passive Form of the verb. 

Remark. — The Passive Form of the Verb is formed by annexing 
the Present Passive Participle to the verb to be in all its modes, 
tenses, forms, <&c. 

1. 





r I. Principal Parts 


• ' 


3. 




• 






4.1 








1 

y Remark. 


;o g 






.5. J 


H 






• u 






^ 5 






' 1. a, b, c, d. 


4 *• < 




r 


2. a, by c. 






ly - 


3. a. 


S M 








© H 






4. a. 


- «* 


II. Formation 






.2 » 






5. a. 


fa S 




from the 
^ Principal Parts, 


f 1. «. 
11./ 


^ 




[ 2. a. 
III. a. Remark. 
lY. 1. Remark. 






V. 


' 1 


Remark. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

199. Exercise XYin. 

Analyze thefoJloicing sentences; select the verbs, and tell from 
wJiat, and Jioio they are formed. 

1. 0, Thou my voice inspire 
Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. 

2. It could not have been known. 

3. ^Tis wisdom to beware, 

And better to avoid the bait than struggle in the snare. 

4. If angels fell, why should not men beware ? 

5. Shall we submit to chains and slavery? 

6. Delightful task, to rear the tender thought, 
To teach the young idea how to shoot ! 



LESSON XX. 
200. Conjugation of Have and the other Auxiliaries. 

Remark. — No verb can be conjugated without using tbe Absolute 
Tenses of the auxiliary Have to form its Perfect Tenses. 

I]^FI]!^ITE PARTS. 

Infinitives. Participles. 

Present. 
Common Form, To Uave. Present-Active, Having. 

Progressive Form, To be baving. 

Perfect. 
Common Form, To have bad. Perfect, Having bad- 

Progressive Form, To bave been baving. Past, Had. 

Imperatives. 

Common Form. Emphatic Form. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1^^ P. Let me have. Let us have. Do let me have. Do let us have. 
2d P. John, have. Boys, have. John, do have. Boys, do have. 
Zd F, Let him have. Let them have. Do let him have. Do let them have. 



if 



ENGLTSII CRAMMAR. 



77 



FINITE PARTS. ABSOI.UTE TENSES- 

Presenl-Iniperlect Tense. 

Indicative Mode. 



Person 
. and 
Number. 



Subject. 



Common Empliatic Inter- Solemn Pro- Passive 
Form. Furm. rogative Form, gressive Form. 
Form. Form. 



Is. / 

2 s. Tliou 

15 s. He, she, it, or John 

1 p. We, you and I, or John and I have 
2 1>. Te or you, or John and you 

3 p. They, or John and Mary 



have 


do have 


.2 o 


have 


am" 






hast 


dost have 


11 


hast 


art 




i 

o 


has 


does have 




hath 


is 


.1 




have 


do have 


2 S r^ 


have 


are 


5' 


1 


have 


do have 




have 


are 




o 


have 


do have 


02=2 


have 


are^ 







Subjunctive or Imperative Mode. 

Complex Form, 



Conditional 
Form. 



Is. / (If) have may, can, must or will 

2 s. Thou (If) have mayst, canst, must or shalt 

3 s. He, she, it, or John (If) have may, can, must or shall 

1 p. We, you and I, or John and I (If) have may, can, must or will 

2 p. Ye or you, or John and you (If) have may, can, must or shall 

3 p. They, or John and Mary (If) have may, can, must or shall 

Past-Imperfect Tense. 
Indicative Mode. 

Common Emphatic Interrogative Progressive 
~ Form. ~ 



Form. Form, 

Is./ had did have 

2 s. Thou hadst didst have 

3 s. He, she, it, or John had did have 

1 p. We, you and I, or John and I had did have 

2 p. Ye or you, or John and you had did have 

3 p. They, or John and Mary had did have 






Form, 
was 
wast 
was 
were 
were 
were J 






Subjunctive I^Iode 

Conditionaf 



Form. 



Complex Form. 



1 s. J (If) had might, could, would or should have. 

2 8. Thou (If) had might'st, could'st, would'st orshould'st Aavc. 

3 s. He, she, it, or John (If) had might, could, would or should have. 

1 p. We, you and I, or John and I (If) had might, could, would or should Jiave. 

2 p. Te or you, or John and you (If) had might, could, would or should have, 

3 p. They, or John and Mary (If) had might, could, would or should have* 



78 



1 s. 

2 s. 

3 s. 
Ip. 

2 p. 

3 p. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Future-Imperfect Tense. 
ludLicatiTe Mode, 



ii 



/ 

Tliou 

He, she, it, or John 

We, you and I, or John and 

Ye or you, or John and you 

They, or John and Mary 



Common Interrogative Progressive Passive 



Form, 
shall have 
vrilt have 
will have 
shall have 
will have 
will have 



Porm. 



^ >% 

1 ^ 



J3 c3 



Porm. 
shall be 
wilt be 
will be 
shall be 
will be 
will be 



Porm. 

o 



REIiATIVE TENSES. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 

Indicative Mode. 



Common 
Form. 

Is./ have had 

2 s. Thou hast had 

3 s. He, she, it, or John has had 

1 p. We, you and I, or John and I have had 

2 p. Ye or you, or John and you have had 

3 p. They, or John and Mary have had 



Interrogative 
Porm. 






Progressive Passive 
Porm. Porm. 



have been 
hast been 
has been 
have been 
have been 
have been ^ 



o 

m 

CD 

< 

o 
•I 

3 



Subjunctive Mode. 



Is./ 

2 s. Thou 

3 s. He, she, it, or John 

1 p. We, you and I, or John and I 

2 p. Ye or you, or John and you 

3 p. They, or John and Mary 



Conditional 
Form. 

(If) have had 
(If) have had 
(If) have had 
(If) have had 
(If) have had 
(If) have had 



Complex Form. 

may, can or must 
mayst canst or must 
may, can or must 
may, can or must 
may, can or must 
ma J, can or must 



p 



Past-Perfect Tense. 
Indicative Mode. 







Common Form. 


Progressive Form. 


1 s. 


/ 


had had 


had been 




2 s. 


Thou 


hadst had 


hadst been 




3 s. 


He, she, it, or John 


had had 


had been 


go 


Ip. 


We, you and I, or John and I 


had had 


had been 


5 


2 p. 


Ye or you, or John and you 


had had 


had been 




3 p. 


They, or John and Mary 


had had 


had been 





ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 79 

iSabjunctive Mode. 

Conditional ^ , _, 

Form, Complex Form. 

Is./ had (I) had might, could, would, should 

2 s. Thou hadst — had mightst, couldst,wouldst, shouldst 

3 s. lie, she, it, or John had — had might, could, would, should 

1 p. We, you and I, or John and I had — had might, could, would, should 

2 p. Ye, or you, or Johti and you had — had might, could, would, should 

3 p. They, or John and Mary had — had might, could, would, should 

Future-Perfect Tense, 
Indicative Mode. 

Common Form. Progressive Form, 
Is. / shall have had shall have been 

2 s. Thou wilt have had wilt have been 

3 s. Ife, she, it or John will have had will have been 

1 p. We, you and I, or John and I shall have had shall have been 

2 p. Ye or you, or John and you will have had will have b een 

3 p. They, or John and Mary will have had will have been 

Remark 1. — "The tenses of the Subjunctive Mode,'''' says Kerl, "move 
forward in time." Hence the present subjunctive expresses future 
time ; the past subjunctive, present time, and the past-perfect subjunc- 
tive, time just elapsed. 

Remark 2. — The compulsory future is expressed by placing the 
present tense of the verb to he before the present infinitive ; as, / am 
TO GO. The proximate future is expressed by placing the present tense 
of the progressive form of the verb to go before the infinitive ; as, / 
am going to write. The proximate past is formed by using just with the 
present-perfect tense; as, I have 3 jj^t arrived. 



5* 



80 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XXI. 

201, Conjugation of the jerh to be. 

Infinitives. Participles. 

Present. 
Common Form, To be. Present- Active, Being. 

Perfect. 
Common Form, To liaTe been. Perfect, Having been. 

Past, Been. 

Imperatives. 



Common Form. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1st F. Let me be. Let us be. 
2d F. John, be. Boys, be. 

od F. Let him be. Let them be. 



Emphatic Form. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Do let me be. Do let us be. 
John, do be. Boys, do be. 
Do let him be. Do let them be. 



Number 

and 
Person. 

1 S. 

2 s. 

3 s. 
Ip. 
2 p. 
8 p. 



FINITE PABTS. 
Indicative Mode. 



Absolute Tenses. 



Subject. 

/ 

Thou 

He, she, it, or John 

We, you and I, or John and I 

Ye, or you, or John and you 

They, or John and Mary 



Present 

Imperfect 

Tense. 

am 

art 

is 

are 

are 

are 



Past 

Imperfect 

Tense. 

was 

wast 

was 

were 

were 

were 



Future 

Imperfect 

Tense. 

shall be 
wilt be 
will be 
shall be 
will be 
will be 



1 s. 

2 s. 

3 s. 
Ip. 

2 p. 

3 p. 



Relative Tenses. 

Present-Perfect Past-Perfect 

Tense. Tense. 

2 have been had been 

Thou liast been hadstbeen 

He, she, it, or John has been had been 

We, you and I, or John and I have been had been 

Ye, or 2/ou, or John and you have been had been 

They, or John and Mary, have been had been 



Future-Perfect 
Tense. 

shall have been 

wilt liave been 

Avill have been 

shall have been 

will have been . 

will have been 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 81' 

Subjunctive or Imperative mode. 

A5>.*^i>lute Tenses. 

Present-Imperrect Tense. 

Con'litional >-, , -r, 

Form. Complex Form. 

Is./ (If) be may, can, must or will be 

2 s. Thou (If) be mayst, canst, must or shaltbe 

3 s. 7/e, she, it, or John (If) be may, can, must or shall be 

1 p. We, or you and I, or John and I (If) be m;iy, can, must or will be 

2 p. Ye, or you, or John and you (If) be may, can, must or shall be 

3 p. They, or John and Mary (If) be may, can, must or shall be 

Past-Imperfect Tense. 

1 s. 7 (If) were might, could, would or should be 

2 8. Thou (If) wert mightst, couldst. wouldst or shouldst b« 

3 8. He, she, it, or John (If) were might, could, would or should be 

1 p. We, or you and I, or John and I (If) were might, could, would or should be 

2 p. Ye, or you, or John and you (If) were might, could, would or should be 

3 p. TJiey, or John and Mary (If) were might, could, would or should be 

Relative Tenses. 
Present-Perfect Tense. 

Complex Form. 
Is. I may, can, must or will have been 

2 8. Ihofu mayst, canst, must or shalt have beefi 

3 s. He, she, it, or John may, can, must or shall have been 

1 p. We, or you and I, or John and I may, can, must or will have been 

2 p. Ye, or you, or John and you may, can, must or shall have been 

3 p. TJiey, or John and Mary may, can, must or shall have been 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

Complex Form. 
Is./ might, could, would or should have been 

2 8. TJiou mightst, couldst, wouldst or shouldst have been 

3 s. He, she, it, or John might, could, would or should have been 

1 p. We, or you and J, or John and I might, could, would or should have been 

2 p. Ye, or you, or John and you might, could, would or should have been 

3 p. They, or John and Mary might, could, would or should have been 

202. Rules for conjugating any verb : 

1. Find its Principal Parts. 

2. AjDply carefully the principles and forms of Lessons 
XIX and XX. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




203. Conjugate tlie following verbs, yiz: 




Amaze drive lay 


sink 


Brake follow march 


teach 


Catch kindle rise 


think 



204. Exercise XIX. 

Analyze the following sentences and tell the raode^ tense, 
forni^ number and person of each verb, 

1. Moses was God's first pen. 

2. If I was deceived, I did not know it. 

3. had I the wings of a dove. 

4. If it were done, when it is done t'were well 
If it were done quickly. 

5. Were half the wealth bestowed on camps and courts 
Given to redeem the human mind from error, 
There were no need of arsenals and forts. 

6. Whoever comes this way, behold and tremble. 

7. The child may have fallen into the well. 

8. He might have done it. 

9. Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. 

10. Beware of the day when the Lowlands shall meet thee. 






ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 83 

LESSON XXII, 
Classification of Adverbs. ' 

206. An Adverb is a word which expresses place^ timey 
cause ^ manner or degree. 

207. There are five species of Adverbs, viz : 

I. Adverbs of Place. 

a. Position ; as, Here^ there^ yonder^ etc, 

b. Direction ; as, Hither^ thither ^ upwards^ downwards,, etc. 

c. Origin ; as. Hence ^ thence^ whence^ etc. 

d. Order; as, Firstly ^ secondly^ finally^ etc. 

e. Place Indefinite ; as, Elsewhere^ somewhere, etc. 

II. Adverbs of Time. 

1. A Point. 

a. Simultaneous ; as, Then^ meanwhile, etc. 

b. Antecedent; as. Before, beforehand^ erewhilcj etc, 

c. Subsequent; as. After ^ afterwards^ etc. 

2. A Period. 

a. Absolutely; as, Always^ continually j etc. 

b. Indefinitely ; as, Ever, long, etc. 

3. Frequency. 

a. Customarily; as, Generally^ regularly, etc. 

b. Definitely; as. Once, twice, thrice, etc. 

c. Indefinitely; as, Betimes, often, sometimes, etc. 

III. Adverbs of Cause ; as, Why, wherefore, etc. 

IV. Adverbs of Manner. 

a. Quality ; as. Bravely, cleverly, dearly, etc, 

b. Quantity ; as, Enough, little, much, etc. 

c. Modality: 

a. Affirmation ; as. Yea, yes, verily, etc. 

p. Negation; as, No, nay, not, etc, 

y. Uncertainty, as, Likely, probably, etc. 

V. Degree ; as, More, somewhat^ so, very, etc. 



84 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



203. Adverbs, like some adjectives, are compared by prefixing 
MORE or LESS for the Comparative , and most or least for the Superla- 
tive ; as, Early, more or less early, most or least early. 

Remark. — The adjective early is compared as follows: early, earlier, 
earliest. 

210. Prepositions intimately connected with verbs and having no 
noun or pronoun depending upon them, are generally regarded as 
adoerhs ; as, He walks about, he fell down. But as they really 
change the meaning of the verb, they form an essential part of it, 
and should be treated as separable particles, not as modifiers. In the 
sentence he walks about, walks no longer expresses the mode of 
progression, but is so modified by ahout as to mean something quite 
difi'erent. So, too, with he laughs at me, laughs at being equivalent 
to derides. 

Note. — There is a correlation among certain adverbs, one answering 



to another, viz : 








Interrogative. 


Indefinite. 


Demonstrative. 


Indirect, 


/•Where? 


Somewhere. 


Here or there. 


Where. 


Place \ Whither ? 


Anywhither. 


Hither or thither. 


Whither. 


I Whence ? 


Anywhere. 


Hence or thence. 


Whence. 


Time When ? 




Then. 


When. 


Cause \ ^ ' 

I Wherefore? 




Therefore. 


Wherefore. 


Manner How ? 


Somehow. 


So or thus. 


How. 



211. Exercise XX. 

Analyze the following sentences, select the adverbs, and tell to 
what species they belong, 

1. Never before did I see her look so pale. 

2. I have been too idle beretofore; but benceforth I will study 
more diligently. 

3. The hall was brilliantly illuminated and densely crowded. 

4. Climb not too high, lest thy fall be the greater. 

5. Deliberate slowly, execute promptly. 

6. Fair and softly go far in a day. 

7. Patience is a flower that grows not everywhere. 

8. The plowman slowly plods his homeward way. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 85 

LESSON XXIII. 
Classiflcatiou of Prepositious. 

212. A Proposition is a connective which joins words 
representing related things ; as, John ivent TO town. 

213. The preposition with its complement forms what is called 
a Phrase^ or Element of the second class. 

21-1. There are three kinds of Phrases, viz: 

I. Substantive Phrases. 
II. A<ljective Plirases. 
III. Adverbial Plirases. 

215. A Substantive Plirase is used either 

1. As the Subject; as, About twenty were killed, 

2. As an Attribute ; as, Henri/ is ix a feyer. 

3. As a Complement ; as, He gave me a dollar for it. 
Remark. — Tliere are no prepositions used especially to form Sub- 
stantive Phrases. 

216. An Adjective Pbrase is used as an Adjective Element 
of the second class. 

217. The following prepositions, when they connect nouns or 
pronouns, are used to form Adjective Phrases : 

1. Quality^ Yiz : Of with an abstract noun. 

2. Place or Time, viz: About, among, arounil, at, 

between, in, on, under. 

3. Cause or Source, viz : Of, from, through. 

4. Possession or Property, viz : Of. 

5. Approximation^ viz : At, by, on. 

6. Tendency or Fitness^ viz: To, unto, (to and for with 

adjectives.) 

7. Exclusion, viz: Besides, but, except, some, unless, 

without. 

8. Resemblance^ viz: After. 

Note. — Tlian is used as a preposition when a Comparative enters 
the sentence; as, Than whom, Satan except, none higher sat. 

218. An Adverbial Phrase is used as an Adverbial Ele- 
ment of the second class. 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

219. The following prepositions, when thej connect nouns or 
pronouns to verbs or participles, are used to form Adverbial 
Phrases : 

!• Piirases of Place. ^ 

a. Position^ viz: About, above, across, after, agaiinst, 
amid, at, before, bebiaid, below, beneatla, beside, 

botwceca, betwixt, down, isi, otf, on, over, out-of, past, 
tliroiagli, tlirongliout, under, underneatb, up, upon, 
w i4hin, witliout. 

b. Direction, 

a. Vertical^ viz : I>own, up. 
/?. Circular^ viz: About, around, round. 
}'. Horizontal,, viz: Along, at, atbwart, into, to, 
towards. 

J. Oblique^ viz: Across, upon (motion), 

c. Origin^ viz: From, of, out-of, oflf, 

>q^OTE. — From, with an adverb or another preposition, denotes 
origin indefinitely ; as, Drive the dog from under the table . 

2. Pbrases of Time. 

a. A Point, 

a. Simultaneous^ viz: At, by, in, on, witbin. 
/5. Antecedent, viz: Before, ere, tow^ards. 
}'. Subsequent^ viz: After, past. 

b. A Period, 

a. Duration, \iz: Buring, for, tbrougb, tbrougbout. 

j3. Commencement, viz: From, since. 

>'. Termination,^ yvl: Till, until, witbin. 

c. Frequency. 

a. Instantaneous, viz: For. 

p. Custoniarij, viz: On; as, Ox Mondays, 

C. Pbrases of Cause. 

a. Reason, viz: For. 

b. Sourccy viz: By, concerning, from, of, off. 

c. End, viz: For, to, unto. 

d. Instnmicntality, viz: Tlarougli, with. 



1 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 87 

4. Phrases of :^Iaiiiier. 

a. Quality. 

a. Accompaniment^ viz: Among, along witli, beside, 
witli. 

/?. Agency, viz: By. 

y. Resemblance, viz: After, like. 

d. How a thing is done^ viz: "With. 

b. Quantity. 

a/ Absolutely. 

a. Measure of Magnitude; as, He is six feet Idgh. 

p. Measure of Excess; as, John is taller than George. 
b/ Relatively, 

a. Equality, viz : for ; enough or sufficiently for ; 
so— as. 

p. Inequality, 

a/ Excess, viz: too— for; Infinitive. 

p.^ Defect, viz: more-than; less-than; Infinitive. 

220. Exercise XXI. 

Analyze the following sentences, select the j^^i^ctses, and tell 
what relation they express. 

1 The boy stood on the burning deck. 
Whence all but him had fled ) 
The light that lit the vessel's wreck 
Shone round him o'er the dead. 

2. Which when Beelzebub perceived, than whom, 
Satan except, none higher sat, with grave 
Aspect he rose, and in his rising seem'd 
A pillar of state. 

3. In the meantime, speaking in the name of the whole people 
of the United States, and at a loss only for language to give 
utterance to that feeling of attachment, with which the heart of 
the nation beats as the heart of one man, — I b^'d you a reluctant 
but affectionate farewell. 



88 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



M 



e 

e 



I, i§iiibsta]itiTe. 



II. Adjective. 






1. Place. 



2. Time. 



3. Cause. 



4. Iflanuei*. 



No particular prepositions. ' 

a. Quality. 

h. Place or time. 

c. Cause. 

d. Possession. 

e. Approximation. ^ 
/. Tendency. 

g. Exclusion. 

A. Resemblance. 



a. Position, 
% 

h. Direction, 



ion. \^' ^^ 



a. Vertical. 
Circular, 
orizontal. 
J. Oblique. 



Origin. 



C5. Point 



h. Period. 



a. Simultaneous. 
/3. Antecedent. 
y. Subsequent. 

a. Duration. 

/?. Commencement. 

y. Termination. 

Instantaneous. 



-n fa. Instantane( 

Lc. Frequency I ^3_ Customary, 



a. Reason. 
h. Source. 

c. End. 

d. Instrumentality. 



a. Accompaniment. 



r a Oualitv 1^* ^S^^^^' 
cf. (Quality, j ^^^^ Resembl 



. h. Quantify. 



blance. 
(I. Manner. 

, \v 1*1 r fi. Measure, 
a.' Absolutely < , 

I /5. Excess. 

A' Relatively {"•f"''"^, 

' "^ (^ p. IncquaLty 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 89 

LESSON XXIV. 
^ Classification of Coiijimctions. 

221. A Conjuuctiou is a word which connects words 
representing related thoughts^ sentiments or volitions. 

222. There are two classes of Conjunctions : 

1. Coordinate. 

2. ^ul>ordiuate. 

223. There are three kinds of Coordinate conjunctions, viz : 

a. Copulative, \\z\ And; botli — and; as if^ell as ; not 

only— bnt, but also, but likewise. 

b. Adversative^ viz : But ; indeed— but ; now — tben; 

on tbe one band— on tlte otlier band. 

c. Alternative, viz : Or ; nor ; neitber ; eitber— or ; 

neitber— nor. 

224. There are five kinds of Subordinate Conjunctions, viz : 

a. Substantive^ viz: Tbat, tbat not, but, but tbat, 

wbetber. 

b. Con lliional, viz: If, unless (if not), tbougb, except, 

provided tbat. 

c. Final, viz: Tbat, tbat not, lest, in order tbat, 

so tbat, so as. 

d. Concessive. 

a. Correlative, viz: IVbatever, wlioever, wbicb- 
ever, nevertbeless, still, wbile, yet. 

ft. Relative, viz: Altliougli, bowever, notwitb- 
standing, tbougb. 

e. Causal. 

a. Reason, viz : As, because, for, inasniucb as, 
forasmucb as, since, wbereas. 

/3. Inference, viz: Consequently, bence, tben, 
tberefore, wberefore, wbence. 



90 



ENGLISH ORAMMAR. 



225. Exercise XXII. 

Analyze the following sentences^ select the conjunctions^ and tell 
to what class and species they belong. 

1. People are liappy, because they are good. 

2. Except je repent, ye shall all 1 kewise perish. 

3. If you wish to enjoy health, bathe often. 

4. I have brought a passage, that you may explain it. 

5. Although the place was unfavorable, nevertheless Caesar 
determined to attack the enemy. 

6. As the door turneth upon its hinges, so doth the slothful 
man upon his bed. 

7. Do as your parents bid. 

8. The more sleek the prey, the greater the temptation ; and 
no wolf will leave a sheep to dine upon a porcupine. 

9. Straws swim upon the surface; but pearls lie upon the 
bottom. 

10. A jest is not an argument; nor is a loud laugh a demon- 
stration. 



Q(D 



O 



c 



\- 



^ 1. Coordinate. 



2, Subordinate. 



Copulative. 



b. Adversative. 

c. Alternative. 

a. Substantive. 

b. Conditional. 

c. Final. 

d. Concessive. 



{% 



a. Correlative. 



Relativ3. 



^ , (a. Reason. 
e. Causal. { ^. inference. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 91 

LESSON XXV. 
Conjunctive Adverbs. 

226. IiiterrogatiTe Adverbs inquire for some circum- 
stance of Place^ Time^ Cause or Manner^ and introduce 
indirect interrogative sentences; as, Where do you live? 
In Clinton Street, When did you come? This morning. 
Why did he leave? Because he ivas compelled. How 
did he go ? In the Cars, 

227. A Conjunctive Adverb is an adverb "which, con- 
nects the clause, of which it forms a part, to the word 
which the clause modifies. 

228. There are three kinds of Conjunctive Adverbs, viz: 

1. Conjunctive Adverbs of Place. 

a. Position, viz: As far as, as long as, fartber tban, 
wbere, wberever. 

I. Direction, viz : Wbitber, wbithersoever^ 

c. Origin, viz: "Wbence. 

2. Conjunctive Adverbs of Time. 

a. Point. 

a. jSimultaneouSj viz : As, as soon as, wben, when- 
ever. 

p. Antecedent, viz: Before, ere. 

7- Subsequent^ viz: After. 

b. Period. 

a. Duration^ viz: As long as, while, whilst, 
/3. Commencement^ viz: Since. 
7. Termination^ viz: Till, until. 

c. Frequency, viz : As frequently as, as often as. 

3. Conjunctive Adverbs of Manner. 

a. Quality. 



92 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



a. Correspondence, 

1/ With a verb or adjective, viz : As ; Just as ; so— as. 
2/ With a noun or pronoun, viz: Save; SUcU— aS ; 
same — as. 

/?. Consequence, 

ly With a verb or adjective, viz: So — tliat. 
2/ With a noun or pronoun, viz : Sucli — tliat. 

b. Comparison. 

a. Equality, viz: As— as ; not so— as. 
/5. Greater Inequalit}-, viz: Tliaii; more — than. 
y. Lesser Inequality, viz: Tlaan; less titan. 
(5. Proportionate Equality, viz: Tlie— tlie; tlie — SO 
mueli tlie. 



r 1. Place. 






\ 2. Time. 



© 



3. Manner. 



'a. Position. 
5. Direction. 
c. Origin. 

a. Simultaneous. 
'a. Point, -j /?. Antecedent. 
7. Subsequent, 
a. Duration. 



h. Period. 



/?. Commencement. 
7. Termination. 



c. Frequency. 



{ 



a. Quality 



h. Comparison. - 



a. Correspondence. 
/3. Consequence. 

a. Equality. 

/3. Greater Inequality. 

7. Lesser Inequality. 

d. Proportionate Equality. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 93 

229. Exercise XXIII. 

Analyze the following sentences ; select the conjunctive adverbs^ 
and tell loliat relation tliey express. 

1. When you liave notliing to say, say nothing. 

2. The age of miracles is past, while that of prejudice remains. 

3. Our lesson is the same as that we had yesterday. 

4. The robber struck him such a blow that he fell. 

5. Where the carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered 
together. 

6. The science of mathematics performs more than it promises. 

7. The more I use the book, the better I like it. 

8. I have more than I know what to do with. 



94 DNGMSH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXVI. 

V 

Classification of Connectiyes. 

230. Connectives are words used to join certain elements of dis- 
course. The elements thus connected are Phrases and Clauses, of 
which the connective forms a part. These Phrases and Clauses 
perform certain offices and take their distinctive names from the 
nature and use of the connective employed. 

231. There are three kinds of Connectives, viz: 

I. Substantive. 
II. Subordinate. 
III. Coordinate. 

232. The Substantive Connectives are 

1. Substantive Conjunctions. § 224, a. 

2. Compound Relative Pronouns, g's 94-97, a. 

3. Interrogatives, including 

a. Interrogative Pronouns, ^'s 98, 99. 
h. Interrogative Adjectives. I 103, 2, c. 
c. Interrogative Adverbs, § 210, note. 

233. The Adjective Connectives are 

1. Relative Pronouns, ^'s 92, 93. 

2. Conditional Conjunctions. | 224, b. 

3. Concessive Conjunctions. | 224, d. 

234. The Adverbial Connectives are 

1. Final Conjunctions. I 224, c. 

2. Causal Conjunctions. I 224, e. 

3. Conjunctive Adverbs, f s 227, 228. 

Remark. — On page 88 will be found an outline of prepositional 
connectives. 

Remark 2. — Subordinate Connectives include Adjective Con- 
nectives and Adverbial Connectives. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



95 




Substa-ntive Conjunctions. 
Compound Relative Pronouns. 






u 








f a. Interrogative Pronouns. 
Interrogatives. } jS. Interrogative Adjectives. 
( ; . Interrogative Adverbs. 

r a. Relative Pronouns. 

I 

J b. Conditional Conjunctions. 
I 
1^ c. Concessive Conjunctions. 



^ a. Final Conjunctions. 
b. Causal Conjunctions. 



Position. 
a/ Place. -! /3. Direction. 
y. Origin. 

(a/ Simultaneous. 
a. Point. \ 13/ Antecedent. 
(^y/ Subsequent. 

C a/ Duration. 
/5. Period.^ /3.^ Commencement. 
{^y/ Termination. 






M 

•IN 

*5 



b/ Time. 



y. Frequency. 



'^ C a/ Correspondence. J 



a 
fl 

^ i 



Verb or Adjective. 
Noun or Pronoun. 



. (^ jS/ Consequence, i 



Verb or Adjective, 
oun or Pronoun. 



{a. Equality. 
^. Greater Inequality. 
y. Lesser Inequality. 
5. Proportionate Equality. 



Copulative Conjunctions. 
Adversative Conjunctions. 
Alternative Conjunctions. 



96 -ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXYII. 
Particles, 

236. An Interjection is a word which expresses emo- 
tion ; as, Alas! oh! fie! 

237. There are eight kinds of Interjections, denoting, 

1. Attention, viz: Behold! hark! hist! hush! list! lo! see! 

2. Calling, viz: Hallo! ho! 

3. Disgust, viz: Away! begone! fudge! fie! pshaw! tush! 

4. Salutation, viz: [John)! welcome! hail! How do you do? 

5. Sorrow, viz: Ah! alas! alack! oh! 

6. Taking leave, viz: Adieu! farewell! good-hy! 

7. Triumph, viz: Aha! hravo! hurrah! huzza! 

8. Wonder, viz: Indeed! 0, strange! what! 

Remark. — Other classes of words are frequently used as Inter- 
jections. 

238. An Expletive is a word which renders a sentence 
more euphonious, without expressing any additional idea ; 
as, It rains ; There is a time for all things. 

239. A CorrelatiTe is a word which expresses antithesis ; 
as. Though he slay me^ yet will I serve him. 

240. An Intensive is a word which renders a sentence 
more emphatic without expressing any additional idea; 
as. Verily, verily, I say unto you ; Now this is the sub- 
stance of the matter. 






S H 



1. Interjections. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Remark. 

2. Expletives. 

3. Correlatives. 

4. Intensives. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 97 

241. Exercise XXIY. 

Analyze the following sentences ; select the particles^ and tell 
to what species they helong. 

1. Even in their ashes live their wonted fires. 

2. I sit me down a pensive hour to spend. 

3. I think there is a knot of you 
Beneath that hollow tree. 

4. The moon herself is lost in heaven. 

5. Now abideth faith, hope, charity. 

6. There is a land of pure delight. 

7. Think of others, not only of thyself. 

8. Wo ! wo ! to the riders that trample thee down. 

9. Woe worth the day; woe worth the chase! 
10. Lives of great men all remind us 

We can make our lives sublime. 

11. What though the spicy breezes 

Blow soft o'er Ceylon's isle ; 
Though every prospect pleases, 

And only man is vile : 
In vain with lavish kindness 

The gifts of God are strown j 
The heathen in his blindness 

Bows down to wood and stone. 

12. Why, let the flood rage on ! 

There is no tide in woman's wildest passion 
But hath an ebb. 



PART SECOND. 



SYNTACTIC RELATIONS OF WORDS, 



ANALYSIS, PARSING AND FALSE SYNTAX. 



LESSOiN' XXVIII. 
Classiflcation of Sentences. Propositions. 

242. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. It 
includes the arrangement^ agreement and government oi' 
words used to express thought, sentiment or volition. 

Remark 1. — The English language being elaborated from Saxon and 
Norman elements, was changed from a synthetic to an analytic language, 
and hence the relations of words are determined partly by the form 
and partly hj juxtaposition. 

Remark 2. — Agreement is correspondence of form arising from a 
correlation of ideas. 

Remark 3. — Government is the power one word has of deter- 
mining the form of another word 

243. A Sentence is a mental act expressed in words ; 
as, The air bites shrewdly ; Revenge his foul and most 
unnatural murder ; that I were as in days of old! 

244. Sentences are classed 

I. According to Signification. 
11. According to Rank. 
III. According to Form. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

245. Sentences, according to signification, are divided into 

I.' Propoisitionis. 
II.' Poistulateis. 

246. A Proposition is a judgment expressed in words; 
as, Ccesar was a tyrant. 

247. There are three kinds of Propositions, viz : 

1. Categorical. 

2. Hypotlietical. 

3. Modal. 

248. A Categorical Proposition is one in which the 
attribute is absolutely affirmed or denied of its subject ; 
as, John is good; Mary sings. 

Note 1. — Logicians recognize four varieties of Categorical proposi- 
tions, viz: 

Universal Affirmative : (A.) All men are mortal. 
Universal Negative : (E.) No miser is truly rich. 
Particular Affirmative : (I.) Some islands are fertile. 
Particular Negative: (0.) All tyrants are not assassinated. 

Note 2. — The degree of affirmation or negation is expressed as 
follows, viz : 

1. As an appendage to another affirmation, 
a. Words, 

Again, also, ay or aye, further, howbeit, however, likewise, 
moreover, namely (to wit, viz.), notwithstanding, now, too, 
why, well, yea, yes, and adverbs of order, viz : First, secondly, 

&c., &c. 

»■ 
h. Phrases, 

As a matter of course, as it were, at all events, by chance, 
for the most part, generally speaking, in general, in the first 
place, in the meantime, in a word, in a measure, in that case, 
no doubt, now and then, of course, on the contrary, on the 
one hand, on the other hand, to be brief, to be sure. 

2, As an appendage to a negation, 
a. Words: Nay, nay verily. 



i 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 101 

3. As indicating a conclusion {illative). 

a. Words. 

Accordingly, consequently, finally, then, therefore. 

h. Phrases. 

In fine, at length. 

4. As expressing/ emphasis affirmatively . 

a. Words. 

Certainly, doubtless, indeed, really, surely, truly, undoubt- 
edly, unquestionably, verily. 

h. Phrases. 

Above all, beyond a doubt, beyond a question, in fact, in 
particular, in reality, in truth, without doubt, without ques- 
tion. 

5. As expressing emphasis negatively, 

a. Word^, 

No, not, almost. 

h. Phrases. 

By no means, in no wise, not at all, and all phrases of which 
no or not forms a part. 

249. A Hypotlietical Proposition consists of two 
clauses, one of which depends on the other, and expresses 
an assumption, condition or supposition; as. Unless you 
DO BETTER, you will lose your situation. 

Note 1. — There are two varieties of hypothetical propositions, viz: 

a. Conditional : If the wind changes, it will snow. 

b. Disjunctive: He was either murdered, or else committed suicide. 

Note 2. — The auxiliaries might, could, icoidd and should are used in 
conditional sentences. 

250. A Modal Proposition is one that expresses a mere 
conception of the mind; as. He may (possibly) come; John 
CAN write. 

Note 1. — The various degrees of uncertainty are expressed as fol- 
lows, viz: 

9* 



102 ENGLISH ORAMMAR. 

a. Possibility, 

Possibly, perchance, perhaps, peradventure, and the auxil- 
iary can, 
h, Prohability, 

Likely, probably, and the auxiliary may, 
c. Necessity. 

Necessarily, and the auxiliary must. 

251. Exercise XXV. 

Tell the hind^ and define each of the following propositions. 

1. Prosody treats of the laws of versification. 

2. An elementary sound is one of the simplest sounds of the 
language. 

3. If Virgil was the better artist, Homer was the greater 
genius. 

4. Men may be deceived. 

5. Rome was not built in one day. 

6. There is a mourner o'er the humblest grave. 

7. If Spring have no blossoms, Autumn will have no fruit. 

8. John can write beautifully. 

9. Perhaps he will not come. 

10. Unsheathe not the sword, except it be for self-defence. 

.11. Deep rivers flow in silent majesty. 

12. If thou hadst been here, my brother would not have died. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 103 

LESSON" XXIX. 
Postulates, Bank. Form. 

252. A Postulate is a sentence in which the predicate 
is expressed as something dependent upon the mind of the 
speaker. 

253. Postulates include 

1. ImperatiTe Sentences;. 
S. £xelaniatiTe Sentences. 
3. Interrogative Sentences. 

254. An Imperative sentence is one in which the pre- 
dicate expresses something dependent upon the will of the 
speaker. Imperative sentences express 

a. Determination. 

a. Resolution; as, /will no^^o; A^ shall ^o. 

/3. Prouiise ; as, You shall he rewarded, 

7. Prophecy ; as, It shall come to pass, 
h. Injunction. 

a. Command; as, Charge! Thou su alt not steal. 

ji. Exhortation ; as, Be diligent in business, 

7. Permission ; as, You may go; Let me or him go, 
c, Solicitation. 

a. Expostulation ; as, You should not do so, 

/?. Entreaty ; as, Do lend me the book, 

7. Prayer ; as. Give us this dxxy our daily bread, 

6, Wish; as. May you be safe! Let me die the death of the 
righteous! 

255. An Exclamative sentence is one in which the 
predicate expresses something dependent upon the emo- 
tional nature. Exclamative sentences are 

(a.) Full ; as, B.ow heautiful she appeared ! 
(h.) Elliptical ; as, How heautiful! Sow lovely I 
(c.) Compound; as, How are the mighty fallen and the 
loeapons of loar perished ! 

256. An Interrogative sentence is one that expresses 
an inquiry ; as, Has James come ? Where do you live ? 



104 ENGLISH ORAMMAR. 

257. There are three varieties of interrogative sentences, viz : 
Direct^ Indirect and Conditional. 

258. A I>irect Interrogative sentence is one that can 
be answered by yes pv no. 

Note. — A Direct question takes one of three forms, viz: 

a. (Ne) Is John well? asks for information. 

/?. (Num) John is not well, is he? expects the answer no. 

y. (Nonne) John is welly is he not? expects the answer yes, 

259. An Indirect Interrogative sentence is one intro- 
duced by an interrogative pronoun, adjective or adverb; 
as, What did you say? what man is that? where do 
you live? 

260. A Conditional Interrogative sentence is one in 
which the predicate is conditioned ; as, Will he go, if it 
rains? 

261. Sentences, with regard to rank, are divided into 

1. Principal. 
3. ISnbordinate. 

3. Coordinate. 

262. A Principal sentence is one that does not depend 
on another proposition; as, James tills his fields tvell. 

263. A l§inbordinate sentence is a proposition or clause 
used as a modifier ; as, The man whom I loved, is dead. 

264. A Coordinate sentence is one of the similar sen- 
tences which are united by a coordinate conjunction, to 
form a compound sentence; as, John writes and Mary 
reads. 

Remark. — When rank is considered, each sentence is denominated 
a clause. 

265. Sentences, with regard to form, are divided into 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 105 

1. Sisiaple. 

2. CosiiiJlex. 

3. Coiiapound. 

4. Abridged. 

266. A Simple sentence is one that contains but one 
proposition or postulate; as. The flowers are hlooming ; 
study your lesson. 

267. A Complex sentence contains two or more propo- 
sitions, of which at least one is dependent; as. When 
SPRING COMES, the flowers will bloom. 

268. A Compound sentence is one in which two or 
more similar sentences are united by a coordinate con- 
junction ; as, John writes and Mary reads 

269. An Abridged proposition is a subordinate sentence, 
some of the elements of which are changed or omitted; 
as, I ordered him to go; I heard of his coming. 

270. Exercise XXVI. 

Tell to ivhat class each of the following sentences belongs. 

1 . Too daring prince ! ah ! whither dost thou run ? 
Ah ! too forgetful of thy wife and son ! 

And think'st thou not how wretched we shall be, 
A widow I, a helpless orphan he ! 

2. Lo ! beauty withers in your void embrace ! 

3. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll ! 

4. Hark ! a glad voice the lonely desert cheers; 
Prepare the way ! A God, a God appears ! 

A God ! a God ! the vocal hills reply; 
The rocks proclaim th' approaching Deity. 
Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies ! 
Sink down, ye mountains; and ye valleys, rise ! 
With heads declined, ye Cedars, homage pay; 
Be smooth, ye rocks ; ye rapid floods, give way. 
The Saviour comes ! by ancient bards foretold. 
Hear him, ye deaf; and all ye blind, behold ! 



106 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 








c 



o 

63 
« 

•N 

e 





o 
ft 



u 

fa 



a. Universal Affirmative. (A.) 
6. Universal Negative. (E.) 
c. Particular Affirmative. (I.) 
^ d. Particular Negative. (0.) 






Conditional. 
Disjunctive. 



Possibility. 

Probability. 

Necessity. 








fa 



« 



w 



S As to Rank. 



S As to Form. 



a. Determination. 



^ 



b. Injunction. 



c. Solicitation. 



Information. 

Assent. 

Dissent. 

Direct. 

Indirect. 

Conditional. 

a. Full. 

b. Elliptical. 

c. Compound. 



}. 



ignification. 



>■ Form. 



y 4. 



Principal. 
2. Subordinate. 
8. Coordinate. 



1. Simple. 

Complex. 

Compound. 
4. Abridged. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 107 

LESSON XXX. 
Classiflcation of Elements. 

271. An Idea is the image the mind forms of something 
previously perceived or apprehended. 

272. A Thouglit is the result of the comparison of 
ideas conceived in relation to one another. 

Note. — As '-^Grammar teaches the natural connection between ideas and 
words ; " as our thoughts arise from attributing qualities, actions, &c., to 
the things of which we have a knowledge, and naturally take the form 
of propositions or sentences, in order to understand the nature of lan- 
guage thus expressed, it must be resolved into its constituent parts. 
Hence, one of the first grammatical processes is the resolution of 
sentences into the ideas of which they are composed. This process is 
termed Analysis, and the words used to represent distinct ideas are 
denominated Elements. Hence, 

273. An Element is a word or combination of words 

used to express a distinct idea ; as, Mary learns her lesson 

well. 

Remark. — Here each word expresses a distinct idea, and is termed 
an Element, 

274. There are three classes of Elements, viz : 

I. Principal. 
II. {Subordinate. 
III. Independent. 

275. The Principal Elements are the essentia of sentences. 
They are 

(1.) The Subject, and 

(2.) The Predicate, including 

(a.) The Copula, and 

(6.) The Attribute. 

^ 276. The Subordinate Elements are the differentia of 

sentences, and are used as modifiers. They are 

(1.) The Adjective Element, 
(2.) The Objective Element, and 
(3.) The Adverbial Element. 



lOS 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



277. The Independent Elements express peculiarities of 
thouglit or sentiment, and include certain 

(1.) Exclam alive Forms. 
(2.) Idiomatic Forms. 
(3.) Abridged Forms. 

278. The kinds and varieties of Elements will be defined as their 
syntax and uses are developed. Below is a comprehensive Outline. 



/ 
















ft. 

•N 
U 

fa 







9 



1. Subject. 

2. Predicate. 



r a. Copula. 
\6. 



Attribute. 






1. Simple. 

2. Complex. 
Compound. 

4. Complex and Compound. 



< - 



1. 1st Class— Word. 

2. 2d Class— Ptirase. 

3. 3d Class — Clanse. 

1. Adjective Element. 

2. Objective Element. 

3. Adverbial Element. 

1. Simple. 



^. S J 2. Complex. \ a-k -^ a 
M o i 3. Compound. J ^^ S • 
^ 4. Complex and Compound. 



1. 1st Class— Word. 

2. 2d Class— Phrase. 

3. 3d Class — Clause. 



ft 



-.1 fi- 

" S J 2. 
sis. 

s a -^ 2. 

^13. 



A Noun or Pronoun used independently. 

An Interjection. 

An Exclamative Sentence. 

Expletives, Correlatives and Intensives. 

Pleonasm. 

Quantitative Complement. 






1. A Participle or Infinitive used independently. 

2. An Adjective used absolutely. 

3. The Absolute Construction, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



109 



LESSON XXXL 
Proposition. Subject. Predicate. Terb. 

279. A Proposition is a judgment expressed in words. 
It consists of two parts : 

1. The Subject, and 

2. The Predicate. 

280. The Subject of a proposition is that of which 
something is affirmed; as, JoR^ writes; Mary reads; 
Cats mew. 

Remark. — To ascertain the subject, put who or what before tbe verb, 
and the answer to the question will be the subject. Thus: Who writes ? 
John. What mew ? Cats. 

281. The Subject may be 

[a.) A Noun; as, Jane sings. 

{b.) A Pronoun ; as, He walks, 

{c.) The with a qualifying adjective; as^ The good are happi/; 

The "WICKED are miserable, 
[d.) A Pronominal Adjective; as, This is my book, 
[e.) An Infinitive; as, To love is pleasant. 
(/.) A Present-Active Participle; as, JjYi^sG is base, 
[g.) A Substantive Phrase; as. From Annville to Lebanon 

is five miles, 

(A.) A Substantive Clause; as, That the earth turns on its 

AXIS isj demonstrable, 
({.) An Imperative Sentence; as, Do unto others as you 

WOULD HAVE others'DO UNTO YOU, IS the golden nde, 
(j.) An Interrogative Sentence ; as, What is truth ? is a 

curious question. 

[k.) An Exclamative Sentence; as, How are the mighty 
FALLEN I is often quoted. 

[I.) A Proposition; as, *'And yet it moves,'' is often repeated. 
Remark. — When the subject of an Imperative Sentence is the object 
addressed, the subject unless emphatic is not expressed; as, Bring me 
the book ; go thou the other wag. 

10 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

282. The Predicate is that word or combination of 
words which affirms something of the subject ; as, Mary 
SINGS ; Jane might have been married ; James is A 

STUDIOUS BOY. 

Remark. — The verb is essential to every sentence. 

283. Verbs, according to their syntactic uses, are divided 
into two classes, viz : 

(1.) Attributive Verbs, and 
(2.) Complementative Verbs. 

284. An Attributive Verb is one whose assertion affects its 
subj ect only. There are four kinds : 

• a. Intransitive. 
h. Copulative. 

c. Inceptive. 

d. Indefinite Transitive. 

285. An Intransitive Verb asserts a simple mode of 
existence of its subject; as, John sleeps; Henry walks. 

286. A Copulative Verb asserts an attribute as some- 
thing inhering in its subject; as, John IS wise. 

287. An Inceptive Verb asserts the incipiency of an 
act completed in the adjective or infinitive which follows 
it; as, He desires to go ; He tried to learn; The fields 
LOOK green. 

288. An Indefinite Transitive Verb asserts an ac- 
tivity of its subject; as, John reads; Mary sings. 

Remark. — An Indefinite Transitive Verb tells how its subject dor 
It simply distinguishes one action from another, and expresses activity 
generically. 

289. A Complementative verb is one that asserts an 
activity of its subject, and passes over to and aflfects what fol- 
lows it. There are four kinds : 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Ill 



(o.) Definite Transitive. 
(6.) Transito-I>ative. 
(c.) Transito-Copniative. 
(d.) Transito-Partitive. 

290. A Definite Transitive Verb asserts an activity 
of its subject as terminating in or on some object; as, 
John HEADS Virgil and Homer. 

Remark. — In the passive form, the object and subject are identical. 

291. A Transito-Dative Verb asserts an activity which 
affects two objects, the one denoting what is done to or 
for the other ; as, William sold Henry an apple ; He 

GAVE THE HORSES OATS. 

292. A Transito-Copulative Verb asserts an activity 
which affects an object of which it predicates an attribute; 
as. They called his name John; They elected him 
chairman. 

293. A Transito-Partitive Verb is one that asserts 
an activity which affects only a part of its complement ; 
as, He DRANK (of the) water. 



1^ 



s 



e 



fa 



-S 
> 



1. Subject. 



S, Predicate. 



1. Attributive. 



/. 
9- 
h. 



V I Remark. 



a. Copula. \t> _. 
. b. Attribute. / ^e°^^^^- 



a. Intransitive. 

b. Copulative. 

c. Inceptive. 

d. Indefinite Transitive. 



2, Complementative 



a. 



a. Definite Transitive. 
Transito-Dative. 
Transito-Copulative. 
Transito-Pariiiive. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

29L Exercise XXTII. 

Select the verbs from the following sentences, and tell to ichat 
species they helong, 

1. Jolin walks, runs, and plays. 

2. The fields look fresh and green. 

3. He became very rich. 

4. John is good. 

5. He tries to learn. 

6. He will come. 

7. Clara plays and draws. 

8. He esteems him a friend. 

9. He sold him his farm. 

10. He gave him his daughter in marriage. 

11. He drank (of the) wine. 

12. He felt (of) the table. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 113 

LESSOX XXXII. 
Analysis and Parsing. Sulyect. Finite Verb. Pronoun. 

295. An Intransitive Verb is one that asserts a simple 
mode of existence of its subject; as, Tlie liorse walks; 
the hoy sleeps. 

296. Every sentence should be subjected to two processes, 
viz : 

(1.) It should be resolved into its constituent elements, and 

(2.) The natural connection between the words used and the 
ideas expressed by them should be carefully pointed out. 
The former process is termed analysis; the latter, 
parsing. 

297. Analysis consists in resolving a sentence into its 
constituent elements. 

298. Parsing consists in naming the species, properties, 
use, and construction of a word, pointing out its relation, 
agreement or dependence and consequent form, and in 
giving the rule or rules relating to the same. 

299. As case is the form a word takes in view of its con- 
struction (See § 60), and as the subject oi a finite verb is 
invariably in the nominative case, we infer 

RUI.E I. 

The SUBJECT of a FINITE VERB must he in tlie nominative 
case; slSjI write; TH.OV writest ; UB writes ; the boys write, 

FORMUI.A I. 

Species? Person? Number? Oender? Construction? 
Case? Rule I. 

300. Since the form of the finite verb varies with the person and 
number of its subject, requiring a corresponding form, we infer 

10^ 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RIJI.E II. 

The FINITE VERB must agree with its SUBJECT in PERSON and 
NUMBER ; as, I SING, thou SINGEST, he SINGS, thei/ SING, John 
and Mary SING. 

FORMTTIiA II. 

Species? Principal Parts ? Conjugation? Mode? 
Tense? Form? Agreement in Person and ]% umber? 
Rule II. 

301. Since pronouns have the same grammatical properties and 
construction as nouns, and always relate to some object present to 
the mind of the reader or auditor, varying in person, number and 
gender as that object varies, we infer 

RUr.£ III. 

The PRONOUN Tnust he in the same PERSON, NUMBER and 
GENDER as the object which it represents ; as, He gave His book 

to HER. 

FOKMUrA III. 

Species? Person, IV umber and Gender? Relates 
to Wbat ? Agreement ? Rule III. Construction ? Case? 
Rule? 

302. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

(1.) Charles runs. 
Analysis. 

Charles runs is a simple categorical proposition, of which Charles 
is the subject and runs the predicate. 

Parsing. 

Charles is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, and is construed as the subject of runs^ and 
must therefore be in the nominative case, according to Rule I: 
The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 

Buns is an intransitive verb, principal parts, run, ran, run, of the 
strong conjugation, indicative mode, present tense, common 
form, and in the third person, singular number, to agree with 
its subject Charles, according to Rule II: The finite verb must 
agree with its subject in person and number. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 115 

(2.) He writes. 

Analysis. 

He writes is a simple categorical proposition, of which he is the 
subject and writes the predicate. 

Parsing. 

He is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, to agree with an object of like properties 
present to the mind, according to Rule III : The pronoun must 
be in the same person, number and gender as the object which it 
represents. It is construed as the subject of writes, and must 
therefore be in the nominative case, according to Rule I: The 
subject of a Jintte verb must be in the nominative case. 

Model for Indicating Analysis and Parsing. 

1 1, 3 

( Charles C He 

V Runs V writes. 

Note. — According to this method, the subject and predicate are 
written the one above the other, and words, phrases or clauses, used as 
modifiers, are written after the words which they modify. The number 
of the rules of construction is indicated by figures written above. Other 
methods of indicating analysis and parsing will be given hereafter. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

3. I sleep. 8. Clara dances. 13. Armies march. 

4. James walks. 9. You smile. 14. We will go. 

5. William jumps. 10. They wink. 15. Birds fly. 

6. Thou risest. 11. John swims. 16. Lions roar. 

7. Mary sits. 12. Henry sleeps. 17. Eagles soar. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. Me walks. 6. He smile. 11. Lion's roars. 

2. James runnest. 7. We dances. 12. Potatoes grows. 

3. William jump. 8. Armies marches. 13. Thou sits. 

4. You was. 9. He sot. 14. Men walks. 

5. We was. 10. Birds flies. 15. Boys writeth. 



116 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Model for Correcting Falise Syntax, 

1. Me walks. 3Ie is used as the subject of the verb, and must there- 
fore be changed to I, according to Rule I: The subject of a finite verb 
must be in the nominative case. Walks must agree Avith its subject I 
in person and number, and must therefore be changed to walk, accord- 
ing to Rule II: The finite verb must agree with its subject in person and 
number. 

IT. Exercise in Composition. 

Write ten sentences, each containing an intransitive verb and a 
subject. 

Direction I. Commence each sentence with a capital letter and put 
a period after the verb. 

Model. I ran. Elvers flow. 

Remark. — It would be a profitable exercise to require the sentences 
thus written to be expanded by putting the verb into the different 
modes, tenses and forms. The intelligent teacher can vary this part 
of the exercise to suit the time, advancement and capacity of each 
member of his class. 






e 



■{ 



r I. Processes 



II. Rules and 
Formulas. 



III. Models. 



1. Analysis. 

2. Parsing. 

■ 1. Subject of Finite Verb. Kule I. 

2. Agreement '' " Rule 11 

3. <« of Pronoun. Rule III. 

1. Analysis. 

2. Parsing. 

3. False Syntax. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 117 

LESSO:>^ XXXIII. 
Copulatiye Terbs. Attributes. 

303. A Copulative verb is one that asserts an attribute 
as inhering in its subject ; as, John IS good; He became 
pi'esident. 

Remark. — The finite parts of the verb to he are generally thus used. 
This verb is, however, sometimes employed to predicate existence, in 
which case it becomes Intransitive ; as, There is a Godz=: God exists. 

304. An Attribute is that which is affirmed of the 
subject; as, John is good; He is a man. 

305. The Copula is that by which something is affirmed 
of the subject ; as, Creorge WAS good; Mary IS beautiful. 

Remark. — The difference between a verb and an attribute is this : 
the verb affirms an activity, a passivity or a simple mode of existence of 
its subject, while an attribute expresses substance^ office, class, possession, 
accident or quality. Verbs may be regarded as attributes having a 
self-predicating power. 

306. Attributes are divided into three classes, viz: 

1. Substantive. 

2. Acljective. 

3. Verbal. 

307. The Substantive express 

(a.) Substance; as, The spoon is silver, 
{b.) Office; aSj Lincoln is FRESiBENT, 
{c) Class; SiS, Henry is a lawyer. 

Remark. — The student should carefully note the difference of mean- 
ing of the expressions, Victoria is queen and Victoria is a queen, the 
indefinite article being used w^ith an appellative to show that the word 
is taken in a general sense, and expresses class, not office, 

308. The Adjective express 

(a.) Possession ; as, That book is mine. 
(5.) Accident; as, He is 'Eere. 
(c.) Quality; SiSj He7iry is good, _ 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

309. The Verhal express 

(a.) Activity; as, Henry is writing a letter. 

[h.) Passivity; as, The letter is written, 

(c) A Mode of Existence; as, The child is sleeping. 

Remark. — It will be found upon examination that Ideatives only are 
used as principal or essential elements. 

310. As Copulative verbs join the attribute to the subject in such 
a way as to affirm its inherence in the subject, it is evident that, if 
it be a noun or pronoun, it must have the same grammatical pro- 
perties. Hence, we infer 

RUI.E IV. 

A NOUN or PRONOUN PREDICATED of a noun or pronoun must 
. he in the same number, gender and CASE ; as, Victoria is a 
QUEEN ; Jane is a poetess. 

FORMUIiA IV. 

Species? Person? STumber, Gender and Case ? Pre- 
dicated of wkat? Agreement? Rule IV. 

Note. — Certain collective or figurative expressions, although 
plural in form, are singular in signification, and hence are not 
exceptions to this rule; as. Eyes (a guide) was I to the hlindj and 
FEET (assistance) to the lame; His speeches are an honor to his 
country. See I 69, Eemark 3. 

Remark. — Constructions like these are ordinarily explained by the 
grammatical figure l§iyllepsiS9 in which words are construed, not 
according to grammatical form, but according to the meaning they 
convey ; as. Our liberties, our greatest blessing, shall we give them 
up ? See lesson on figures, Part III. 

311. As an adjective, no difierence how used, is connected in thought 
with the noun or pronoun representing the object to which it refers, 
it should also be connected grammatically with that word. Hence, 
we infer 

RUIiE V. 

The ADJECTIVE must he construed with the word representing 
the ohject to which it refers. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 119 

FOR.1IUL.A V. 

Species? Comparison? Number or Oegree? How 
used? Refers to what? Construction? Rule V. 

312. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

1. David was Icing. 
Analysis. 

David ivas king is a simple categorical proposition, of which David 
is the subject and was king, the predicate^ of which was is the 
copula and king the attribute. 

Parsing. 

David is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, and is construed as the subject of was, and must 
therefore be in the nominative case, according to Rule I. The 
subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 

Was is a copulative verb, principal parts, be, was, been, of the strong 
conjugation, indicative mode, past tense, common form, and is in 
the third person, singular number, to agree with its subject David, 
according to Rule IT. The finite verb must agree with its subject in 
person and number. 

King is a common noun, of the third person, and is of the singular 
number, masculine gender, and nominative case, to agree with 
David of which it is predicated, according to Rule IV. A noun 
or pronoun, predicated of another noun or pronoun, must be in the 
same number, gender and case. 

(2.) Milton was blind. 

Analysis. 

Milton was blind is a simple categorical proposition, of which Milton 
is the subject and was blind, the predicate, of which was is the 
copula and blind the attribute. 

Parsing. 

Milton is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, 
I masculine gender, and is construed as the subject of was, and 

I must therefore be in the nominative case, according to Rule I. 

The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Was is a copulative verb, principal parts, be, was, been, of the strong 
conjugation, indicative mode, past tense, common form, and in the 
third person, singular number, to agree with its subject 3Iilton, 
according to Rule II. The finite verb must agree with its subject in 
person and number. 

Blind is a descriptive adjective of the qualifying kind, not compared, 
is used with was to form the predicate, and refers to Milton, with 
which it is construed according to Rule Y. The adjective must be 
construed with the word representing the object to which it refers. 

II. Elxamples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Johnson became president 8. Job was patient. 

2. William became judge. 9. Moses was meek. 

3. Grant is general. 10. Charles had been weak. 

4. Sherman is lieutenant-general. 11. Milton was blind. 

5. Mary was preceptress. 12. I shall be judge. 

6. Eugenie is empress. 13. You had been studious. 

7. Victoria is queen. 14. She is beautiful. 

Models for Analysis and Parsing, 

1 1 

{William, sub. /^ Job, sub. 

2 I 2 

will be, cop. ^ ^ was, cop. ^ 
. ,^ ^^ ^Pred. ^.5 VPred. 

judge, att. J V patient, att. ) 

j^OTE. — Analysis and parsing may also be indicated by writing the i 
number of the rule or rules relating to the construction, agreement or 
dependence of each word above it, drawing two horizontal lines beneath 
the principal elements, and showing the dependence of the other words 
by connecting them with curved lines. 

Thus: 

5 5 12 5 5 4 

A studious boy will become a useful man. 



III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. Mary is a poet. 5. James is a laundress. 

2. Julia is a teacher. 6. Daniel is a milliner, { 

3. She is a marquis. 7. Mary is a tailor. } 

4. Ettie is a hero. 8. Susan is a doctor. I 



JEXGLISH GRAMMAR. 



121 



9. Ellen is a sultan. 
10. Her name is Charles. 
f 11. She was called Louis. 



12. William is executrix. 

13. John is a witch. 
11. Henry is a coquette. 



Model. — Poet must be changed to poetess, to agree with Mary, 
according to Rule IV. A noun or pronoun, predicated of another noun 
or pronoun must be in the same number, gender and case. 

IV. If rite eighteen sentences containing attributes. Let there be two 
of each kind. 



i 

S 










1 l^^ubstantive. 



S. Adjective. 



3. Verbal, 






K 



■ 



i: 



I 3. 



a. Substance. 

b. Office. 

c. Class. 
a. Possession. 
5. Accident. 
c. Quality. 

' a. Activity. 

5. Passivity. 

c. Mode of existence. 
Predicate Noun or Pronoun. Rule IV. 
Construction of Adjectives. Rale V. 
Note. Remark. Models. 1. 2.! 



11 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSOR XXXIY. 
Adjectiyes as Modifiers. 

313. As stated in a former lesson, adjectives are divided into 
three species or kinds, viz : 

(1.) Distributives; as, KiAj men are mortal. 

(2.) Defiiaitives ; as, This hooh is torn. 

(3.) Bescriptives ; as, Good men are HAPPY. 

K^otes on tiae Use of Adjectives. 

1. A is used before words commencing with a consonant-sound; — 
an, before words commencing with a vowel or an h-mute; as, A good 
hoy ; AN old man; an honest hoy. 

2. When several adjectives are construed with the same word, 
but refer to different objects, the article must be repeated with each 
of them ; as, A red and a white flag^ that is, a red flag and a white flag^ 
two different flags being meant. A red and white flag would mean 
one object of different colors. 

3. All pronouns and verbs agreeing with a noun modified by 
a or an, each, every, eitlier, many-a, tlais, tliat, one, 
another, and the cardinal number one, must be in the singular 
number ; as, Every man to his tent^ Israel! 

4. The Article tlie is used 

(a.) With a superlative when predicated: as, Achilles was 
tSie hravest of the Greeks. 

[h.) In Scottish writings, with the names of celebrated per- 
sons j as. The Bruce, the Douglass. 

(c.) When several adjectives are used to express a climax; 
as, The generous, the valiant, the patriotic Washington. 

314. Since some Distributives and Definitives require the noun 
agreeing with them to be in the singular number, and others in the 
plural number, (See § 110, I. Ill) we infer 

RUI.E VI. 

A noun modified hy a Distributive or Definitive must 
agree, with it in number; as, This man, these men. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 123 

FOR:^iriiA VI. 

Species? Person? Number? Agreement? Rule VI. 
Oender? Construction? Case? Rule? 

315. The Complex (or Logical) subject or prediccate is the gram- 
matical subj ct or predicate with its modifiers; as, The learned 
pagans ridiculed the Jews for being a credulous people. Here the learned 
pagans is the complex (or logical) subject, and ridiculed the Jews 
for being a credulous people is the complex (or logical) predicate. 

Note 1. — A friend of mine suggests that the following distinction 
should be made with regai-d to the predicate. Take, for instance, the 
sentence, JTolin writes Ws copy diligently. 

IVriteS = Simple Predicate, 

Writes lais copy = Limited " 

Writes diligently = Modified " 

Writes his copy diligently = Complex " 

He very justly remarks that any one of the above forms is the logical 
predicate, the term logical being generic. But as we apply the term 
complex to any element that has one or more subordinate elements 
depending upon it, the distinction is of little practical value. The 
term logical, however, is not synonymous with complex, and hence 
should not be used. 

Note 2. — In the sentences, (1.) John is good, and (2.) The good man 
is happy, the word good is joined to the noun representing the object 
to which it refers in different ways. Logicians would call the first 
good the predicate; the second, the attribute. They further say that 
good, in the second sentence, is the invariable characteristic of a class. 
But as Bullion, Green, and teachers generally, use the term attribute 
in a technical sense to denote any word or combination of words used 
with the copula, to affirm something of the subject, I did not feel justified 
in using the term otherwise. Besides, there is a subtle fallacy in 
regarding good as the class characteristic. The article the changes 
the character of the expression, which, however, is ambiguous. If it 
expresses a class, the is used in a generalizing sense (| 104, 1, b.), 
and the expression has a class character; but, if the refers to a pre- 
viously mentioned or well-known object, the expression points out some 
I particular man, just as the word John does, and no longer distin- 
«;uishes a class, but designates an individual. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

316. An AdJectlTe element is any word or combination 
of words answering the question, What kind? how many? 
or, ivhose? 

317. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

(1.) That horse is his. 

Analysis. 

That horse is his is a simple categorical proposition, of which that 
horse is the subject, being complex, of which horse is the basis, 
marked definite by that, an adjective element of the first class; 
is his is the predicate of which is is the copula and his, the attri- 
bute. 

Parsing. 

That is a Definitive adjective of the demonstrative kind, in the singu- 
lar number, is used to show that the object to which it refers is 
remote from the speaker, and refers to horse with which it is 
construed, according to Kule V : The adjective must be construed 
with the word representing the object to which it refers. 

Horse is a common noun, of the third person, and is in the singular 
number, to agree with that, according to Rule YI: A noun modified 
by a Distributive or Definitive must ag-ree with it in number. It is of 
the masculine gender, and is construed as the subject of his, and 
must therefore be in the nominative case, according to Rule I: 
The sul^ect, ^c. 

Is is a copulative verb, principal parts, be, was, been, of the strong 
conjugation, indicative mode, present tense, common form, and of 
the third person, singular number, to agree with its subject horse, 
according to Rule II : The finite verb must agree with its subject in 
person and number. 

His is an adjectival personal pronoun, is used to show that the object 
horse to which his refers is possessed by the otgect which his 
BEPRESENTS ; it is of the third person, singular number and mas- 
culine gender, to agree with an object of like qualities present to 
the mind, according to Rule III: {Repeat Rule). It is used with 
is to form the predicate, and refers to horse, with which it is con- 
strued, according to Rule V: {^Repeat Rule), 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 125 

Ex. 2. The wise are happi/. 
Analysis. 

This is a simple categorical proposition, of which the ivise is the 
subject, being complex, of which ivise is the basis, distributed by 
the, an adjective element of the first class ; are happy is the pre- 
dicate, of which are is the copula and happy, the attribute. 

Parsing. 

Tlie is a Distributive adjective of the article kind, it is used with 
the word wise to show that it is taken in a general sense, (that 
is, that it includes all of its class) and refers to good, with which 
it is construed, according to Rule V. [Repeat the Rule.) 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Every good student is diligent 

2. That beautiful bay horse is mine. 

3. Few religious men are unhappy. 

4. Several learned men were senators. 

5. Other students are more studious. 

6. Three interesting children died. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. Them beautiful gray horses is ourn. 

2. Three foot makes a yard. 

3. A thousand millions are a billion. 

4. A half-dozen dozens is six-dozen dozens. 

5. Three pairs of stockings was in the box. 
G. Deers is handsome animals. 

7. Three yokes of oxen were in each plow. 

8. This here book belongs to Dick. 

9. That there slate is Sams. 

IV. Let the student write sentences containing the words men- 
tioned in Section 110, and illustrate the principles contained in this 
Lesson. 



11* 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



jC ^ ;; 1^ 1. Species. I, II, III. 

2. Notes. 1, 2, 3, 4 a, h, c. 

3. Rules and Formula VI. 
L 4. Note 1, 2. Models. 






e 



LESSON XXXV, 
Adjectiye Constructions. Possessive Case. 

318. Nouns and pronouns are used to express the following 
relations, viz: 

(a.) Agency; as, Solomon's temple, 

(b.) Adaptation ; as, Ladies' gloves. 

(c.) Kindred; as, Peter's wife's mo^Aer. 

(d.) Measure; as, A hand's breadth, 

(e.) Possession or Property; as JoHN^S slate, 

(/.) Source ; as. The sun's rai/s, 

(g.) Time; as, the Thirty years' war, 

(/i.) Weiglit ; as, A pound's weight. 

Note. — The forms of the possessive, or genitive case in Anglo-Saxon, 
Semi-Saxon and Compound English are presented below. 

Anglo-Saxon. Semi-Saxon. 

Vowel Declension. 

m, f, n, 

es e es 

e en(e) e 

Indefinite Declension. 
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Any gender. an ena en en 

Chxucer {Compound English) used the syllable es to form the possessive case in the 
singnlar, and s, (or es pronounced s,) to form the plural if the nominative plural did 
not end in es. Caper his, contracted into Caperes, was used as the possessive case of a 
proper name, just as uneducated persons now write John his hook for John's book. 





m. 


/. 


n. 


Singular. 


es 


e 


es 


Plural. 


a 


ena 


a 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 127 

319. In each of the above examples, the noun ov pronoun is placed 
before a noun to express some external limitation, and invariably 
assumes the possessive form. Hence, we infer 

RlJIiE VII. 

A NOUN or PRONOUN, placed he/ore a noun to LIMIT iV, must 
he in the possessive case, as, Our neighbor's hees, 

FOR:fIUI.A VII. 

Species? Person? Xumber? Gender? Construction? 
Case? Rule? 

Note 1. — If two or more objects possess a thing conjointly^ the sign 
('s, s' or ') is suffixed to the latter only; as, Parker and Watson's 
Readers, But, if a number of objects possess different things of the 
same name, the sign of possession must be suffixed to each noun ; 
as, Webster's^ Walker^s and Worcester's Dictionary^ that is, Webster's 
Dictionary^ Walker's Dictionary and Worcester' s Dictionary. 

Remark. — The reason of this will be more fully explained when 

abridgment is considered. 

Note 2. — When two or more nouns are in apposition and form 
a complex name, the sign of possession is suffixed to the latter only j 
as, John the Baptist''s head, Thomas Jefferson's Works, 

Note 3. — A noun or pronoun preceding a participle, governed by 
a preposition, must be in the possessive case ; as, There is a chance 
of HIS retrieving his fortune. 

Note 4. — When the object possessed is obvious, the noun denoting 
it is not expressed; as, I stopped at Dr, Gerry^s = Dr. Gerry's Drug 
Store. 

Remark. — Note particularly the difference of meaning in the two 
following sentences, viz : 

(1.) This is a picture of my friend. 
(2.) This is a picture of my friend's. 
The former means a picture representing my friend ; the latter, one 
belonging to him. 

Note 5. — In disposing of sentences like the following, a little 
t^ransposition will free them from anomalies and render them 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

more euphonious^ viz: At Smithes, the hool'seUer^=At Smithes hooJcsfore; 
Her Majesty Queen Victorians government^=the government of Her Majesty 
Queen Victoria ; The Bishop of Landaff's residence = the residence of 
the Bishop of JLandaff; The Captain of the Fulton's wife died yesterday 
= the wife of the Captain of the Fulton died yesterday ; Mr, Crawford's 
Reportj the Secretary of the Treasury = the Report of Mr, Crawford^ 
Secretary of the Treasury; This is a picture of my friend^ s = this picture 
belongs to my friend; Thai horse is John'' s= that is John's horse; This 
is a sword of Washington s = this is Washington's sword. 

Note 6. — The adjectival personal pronouns, mine, ours; thine, 
yours; his, hers, its, theirs, are not in the possessive case, hut are 
construed as adjectives denoting possession. In solemn discourse 
or poetical language, however, mine and thine are used for the pos- 
sessives my and thy. 

Remark. — The noun or pronoun in the possessive case is an adjective 
element of the first class. 

320. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

(1.) His lesson is difficult. 
Analysis. 

His lesson is difficult is a simple categorical proposition, of which his 
lesson is the subject, heing complex, of which lesson is the basis 
modified by his, an adjective element of the first class ; is dfficult is 
the predicate, of which is is the copula and difficult, the attribute. 

Parsing. 

His is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, to agree with some object of like qualities 
present to the mind, according to Rule III : The pronoun must be 
in the same person, mimber and gender as the object which it represents. 
It is placed before the word lesson to limit it, and must therefore 
be in the possessive case, according to Rule VII : A noun or pro- 
noun placed before a noun to limit it, must be in the possessive case. 

(2.) Joh)ts hat is old, 

John's is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, is placed before the noun hat to limit it, and must 
therefore be in the possessive case, according to Rule VII : A noun 
or pronoun placed before a noun to limit it, must be in the possessive 
case. 



Jl 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 119 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing, 

1. The rook's nest is empty. ^ 

2. My task is difficult. 

3. Our books are interesting. 

4. Henry's farm is productive. 

5. William's flowers are beautiful. 

6. Our George is a line boy. 

7. John's lessons are abstruse. 

8. The man's hand was leprous. 

9. The king's council was unanimous. 

10. The nation's glory is great. 

11. Peter's wife's mother was sick. 

III. Examples in False l§»yntax« 

1. I will not destroy the city for ten sake. 

2. Brown, Smith, and Jone's wife went shopping. 

3. Some of uEschylus' and Euripides' plays open thus. 

4. Augustus's* speech was eloquent. 

5. Mr. McCulloch, the Secretary of the Treasury's RejDort. 

6. John's the Baptist's head was brought. 

7. I stopped at Smith's, the confectioner's. 

IV. "Write ten sentences containing a noun or pronoun in the 
possessive case. The student should endeavor to illustrate in these 
sentences, all the principles of the Lesson. 



1. Relations, a, h, c, d, e, /, g, h. Xote. 

2. Rule and Formula. 

3. Notes. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Remark. 

4. Models. 






X 


Qt 


& 


W 


> 




*i^ 




X 



s ^ 

e i- 



"^ The s may be omitted when two successive syllables contain an 
8-sound, and the next word begins with s. 



130 EISTGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXXYI. 
Adjectiye Constructions. Apposition, 

321. A noun placed after a noun or pronoun to identify it, is said 
to be in apposition, and the word thus apposed is a general term 
expressing the class, office^ relation, &c., which distinguishes the 
object referred to by the apposed noun from other objects of the same 
name; as, Paul the Apostle ; Paul the Second. 

322. The noun in apposition is generally of the nature of a title, 
and hence must have the same gender and number, and, as it forms 
part of a complex name, it is in the same construction, and must 
be in the same case; as, Ferdinand and Isahella^ king and queen of 
Castile and Leon, 

Hence, we infer 

RUI.E VIII. 

A NOUN placed after a noun or pronoun to identify it^ must he 
in the same number , gender and case ; as, Darius the king. 

FORMUI.A VIII. 

Species? Person? Use? Noiinber, Gender and Case? 
Agreement? Rnle? 

Note 1. — A noun is sometimes in apposition with a sentence; as, 
He offered to assist me; — a favor which I highly appreciated. 

Note 2. — Sometimes a word expressing a part, is made to agree" 
with a word expressing the whole; as, Tiiey fled; some, one wag; 
OTHERS, another ; the Articles a ayid the. 

Note 3. — Sometimes a word modified by a distributive pronominal 
adjective is in apposition with a plural noun ; as, They^Zcy/; — zach 
MAN to his tent. 

Note 4. — An adjective designating a title is often in apposition 
with a noun; as, Alexander the Great ; Ilenrg IV, 

323. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing^. 

(1.) Milton J the great English poet ^ icas hlind. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 131 

Analysis. 

Milton, the great English poet, was blind, is a simple categorical propo- 
sition, of which Milton, the great English poe\ is the subject, being 
complex, of which Milton is the basis, modified by the great English 
poet, an adjective element of the first class, being complex, of 
which poet is the basis, marked definite by the and modified by 
great and English, adjective elements of the first class; was blind 
is the predicate, of which was is the copula, and blind, the attribute. 

Parsing. 

Poet is a common noun, of the third person, and is in the singular 
number, masculine gender and nominative case, to agree with th^ 
noun Milton, which it identifies, according to Rule VIII: A noun 
placed after a noun or pronoun to identifg it, must be in the same 
number, gender and case. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Henry the Fourth was an excellent king. 

2. The patriarch Abraham was accounted faithful. 

3. The emperor Xero was a cruel tyrant. 

4. William the Conqueror defeated Harold, the Saxon king. 

5. The disciple John was beloved. 

6. The proto-martyr Stephen was a holy man. 

III. Examples in False Sjntax. 

1. Mary, the doctor, is sick. 

2. James, the w^itch, was dishonest. 

3. Jane, the sloven, is a tutor. 

4. Francis, the queen, was dethroned. 

5. Clara, the swain, was young. 

IV. Write ten sentences illustrating the principles enunciated in 
this lesson. The apposed part, unless short, must be separated by 
a comma before and after it» 



ft " 

1 1 



1. Rule and Formula VHI. 

2. Notes, 1, 2, 3, 4. 

3. Models. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXXVII. 

Construction of Adyerbs. 

324. Adverbs are used 

(1.) To limit an attribute as to time^ place or manner; as, 
John wrote yesterday ; Mary was there ; Jane studied 

DILIGENTLY. 

(2.) To express the modality of tlie copula; as, He is not 

* deadj but sleepeth, 

(3.) To express degree; as, He is very diligent 

325. The position of the adverb is 

(1.) After the copula ; as, He is not here, 

(2.) After the imperfect and compound tenses of the common 
and progressive forms of the verb; as. The sails were 
shaking violently ; the head-yards swung up heavily ; 
he will learn it readily. 

(3.) Before the participle in the passive form and perfect 
tenses of the verb; as, The sails were already brougJd 
within the folds, 

(4.) Before the adjective or adverb which it limits; as, 
Henry is very studious, 

326. The natural position of the adverb is before the word which 
it limits, but, the relation between the subject and copula being 
more intimate than that between any other elements, it becomes 
necessary to place it as described in Section 325, 1 and 2. But 
when it is emphatic, it seems to form an integral part of the 
predicate, and is placed before the imperfect tenses of the common 
and progressive forms of the verbj as, /really believe some people 
save their bright thoughts; the gentlemen gallantly attended their fair 
ones; the gentlemen alternately nibbled and sipped. In these and 
similar cases the adverb seems to express rather some limitation of 
the signification of the verb in its inherent nature than any external 
limitation of place, time or manner; as. His first poems were received 
with a contempt ivhich they did not absolutely deserve; our enemies 
USUALLY teach lis what we are. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 133 

Hence, we infer 

RlJIiE IX. 

The adverh must he construed with the word which it modifies. 

FOR^IUtA IX. 

Species? Comparison? I>egree? How used? Con- 
struction? Rule? 

327. Any word or combination of words, answering the question, 
when? where? why? or Jiow? is an adverbial element. 

Remark. — The errors commonly made in the use of adverbs are 

1. Using the wrong word, viz: never for ever, no for not 

or any, most for almost, miglity for very, where 
for whither or whence, there for thither or thence, 
here for hither or hence, some or something for 
somewhat, as for so. 

2. Using an adjective instead of an adverb; as, The pen does 

not write good. 

3. Using two negatives ; as, She will never grow no taller, 

328. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

(1.) Good pupils study diligently. 

Analysis. 

Good pupils study diligently is a simple categorical proposition, of 
which good pupils is the subject, being complex, of which pupils is 
the basis, modified by good, an adjective element of the first class; 
study diligently is the predicate, being complex, of which study is 
the basis, modified by diligently, an adverbial element of the first 
class. 

Parsing. 

Diligently is an adverb of manner, compared, diligently, more diligently, 
most diligently, of the positive degree, is used to show how good 
pupils study, and modifies study with which it is construed, according 
to Rule IX: The adverb must be construed with the word which it 
modifies. 

(2.) John came yesterday. 

12 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Parsing. 

Yesterday is an adverb of time, is used to limit the predicate, and 
modifies came, with which it is construed, according to Rule IX. 

(3.) He writes very rapidly. 

Parsing. 

Very is an adverb of degree, is used to form the superlative absolute 
degree, and modifies rapidly^ with which it is construed, according 
to Rule IX. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing* 

1. I will write to-morrow. 

2. His heart v^ent pit-a-paL 

3. Her heart went piti/-Zekle. 

4. He will certainly come. 

5. The most worthless things are sometimes most esteemed. 

6. They left early yesterday morning. 

7. The boy ran very rapidly. 

III. Examples in False i§^yntax. 

1. All their neighbors were not invited. 

2. Theism can only be opposed to polytheism. 

3. He is thought to be generally honest. 

4. It is impossible to be continually at work. ^ 

5. I don't know nothing about your affairs. 

6. It rains most every day. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing adverbs of the different kinds. 



C 

» 

a > 






1. Uses, 1, 2, 3. 

2. Position, 1, 2, 3, 4. Remark. 

3. Rule and Formula IX. 
4 Errors, 1, 2, 3. 

5. Models. 1, 2, 3. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 135 

LESSOR XXXVIII. 
Transitiye Verl). Objectiye Element. 

329. A Definite TransitiTe verb (§ 290) asserts an 
activity of its subject as terminating in or on some object; 
as, George writes letters. 

Remark. — The word representing the object affected by a comple- 
mentative verb, is called its complement. 

330. Any word or combination of words answering the 
question lohat? or, whom? after the verb, is an Objective 
Element. 

Note. — There are four kinds of complements, viz: 

1. After IntransitiTe verbs ^ representing 

a. The object of kindred signification; as, He ran a race; 

He SANG a HYMN. 

h. The causative object; as, He tvalks his horse = causes 
HIS horse to walk. 

2. After Complemeiitative verbs, representing 

a. The direct object; as, John struck George; John gave 

George an apple; Theg called him George, 

b. The indirect object; as, John gave George an apple; He 

ate OF the fruit. 

331. As the form of the word, used as a complement of a verb, 
is invariably the same, and as grammarians term the form thus 
used the objective case, we infer 

RUIiE X. 

The eomplement of the verb must he in the objective case; 

as, John struck him. 

FORMULA X. 

Species? Person? Number? Gender? Construc- 
tion? Case? Rule? 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

332. I. Models of Analysis and Piirsing. 

(1 .) William studies gramma7\ 

Analysis. 

William studies grammar is a simple categorical proposition, of which 
William is the subject and studies grammar is the predicate, being 
complex, of which studies is the basis, modified by grammar, an 
objective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Grammar is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and is construed as the complement of studies, and 
must therefore be in the objective case, according to Rule X: The 
complement of the verb must be in the objective case. 

II. examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Dogs bite strangers. 5. Merchants sell goods. 

2. Wolves catch lambs. 6. Horses draw carriages. 

3. Lightning strikes trees. 7. Wealth produces pride. 

4. Misers love gold. 8. I shall see him. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. Who did you invite? 

2. Who shall he send? 

3. Who shall I put in such a place as this? 

4. Let Mary send you and I. 

5. Tell me who you mean. 

6. Ye only have I known. 

7. Let thou and I the battle try. 

8. Him you should punish; not I^ who am innocent. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing a subject, verb and comple- 
ment. 



^ 

^ 
S 







a. Object of kindred signification. 



^ r^ 1 X \ b' Causative object. 

1. Complements. ■{ ^ -n- ^ f r.\.\^J 
^ 1 c. Direct object. 



d. Indirect object. 

2. Rule and Formula X. 

3. Models. 



Jl 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1C7 

LESSON XXXIX. 
Prepositions. Phrases. 

333. A Preposition is a connective which joins Avords 
representing related things; as, The fort stood ON the hill. 

Remark. — The words representing the related things must always 
be expressed. 

334. Every Preposition must have a word or combination of 
words after it to complete its meaning ; as, Tlie sugar is in the 
cellar; from what he said, / inferred that he had been 
there. 

Remahk. — What follows the preposition is termed its comple- 
ineut. 

335. A Preposition and its complement used as an element 
of discourse is termed a Plifase; as, A man or integrity 
alicays succeeds. 

336. A Phrase is complex when its complement consists of 
more than one word ; as, Lincoln died in the hight of his 
glory. 

337. Phrases are of three kinds, viz : 

(1.) Substantive; as. From x\nnville to Lebanon 

is five miles, 
(2.) Adjective; as. The emperor OF 'Rvssi A is dead. 
(3.) Adverbial; as, The apples are IN THE CELLAR. 

338. A Substantive Plirase may denote 

(a.) Tendency from one point to another; as, From Shrews- 
bury TO Baltimore is 34 miles, 
{b.) Position; as, John said to his son^ Drive the do j from 

UNDER THE TABLE. 

(c.) An Indefinite Number as, About twenty were present, 
12^ 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

339. An Adjective Phrase may deaote 

{a.) Quality; as, A man of integrity. 

(b.) Place or time; as, The mill on the floss; flowers in 

SPRING. 

(c.) Cause or Source ; asj A good hope through grace. 

(d.) Possession or kindred; as, The brother of James. 

(e.) Approximation; as, The house at the gap. 

(/.) Tendency or fitness; as, Sin unto death. 

(^.) Exclusion; as, A man ttithout arms; all but him. 

340. An Adverbial Phrase may denote 

1. Place. 

(a.) Position; as, He is across the stream. v 

{b,) Direction ; as, He went toward the woods. 
[c.) Origin ; as, He came from Texas. 

2. Time, 

(a.) A Point; as. He came at twelve o^clock. 

(b.) A Period ; as, He remained during a session. 

{cS) Frequency ; as, He comes on Tuesdays and Thursdays. 

3, Cause ; as, He went for the physician. 

4, Manner. 

(a.) Quality; ^^, She went with him. 
(b.) Quantity; as, John is older than George, 
;f^0TE. — For full classification, see ^'s 212-219. 

341. A Preposition shows the relation of one object to another, 
and at the same time connects the words representing these objects. 
Hence, we infer 

RrJLE XI. 

A Preposition connects words representing related things, 

FORMUIiA XI. 

Species? Connects wlial words? Rule XI. 



ENGLISn GRAMMAR. 139 

342. The word used to complete the meaning of a preposition 
invariably assumes the objective form. Hence we infer 

RULE XII. 

The COMPLEMENT of a preposition must he in the OBJECTIVE 
CASE. 

FOR]fIUI.A XII, 

Species? Person? Number? Gender? Construc- 
tion ? Case ? Rule XII. 

343. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

1. The old oak is loaded with a floch of singing hlackhirds. 

Analysis. 

This is a simple categorical proposition, of which the old oak is the 
subject, being complex, of which oak is the basis, marked definite 
by the and modified by old, adjective elements of the first class; 
is loaded with a flock of singing blackbirds is the predicate, being 
complex, of which is loaded is the basis, modified by with a flock of 
singing blackbirds, an adverbial element of the second class, of 
which with is the connective, and a flock of singing blackbirds, the 
objective part, being complex, of which flock is the basis, distri- 
buted by a, an adjective element of the first class, and modified by 
of singiiig blackbirds, an adjective element of the second class, of 
which of is the connective, and singing blackbirds the objective part, 
being complex, of which blackbirds is the basis^ modified by singing, 
an ac^jective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

With is a preposition, and shows the relation of flock to loaded, 
which words it connects, according to Rule XI: A preposition con- 
nects words representing related things. 

Flock is a collective noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and is construed as the complement of the prepo- 
sition icith, and must therefore be in the objective case, according 
to Rule XII: The complement of a preposition must be in the objective 
case. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Of is a preposition, and shows the relation of blackbirds to floch, 
which words it connects, according to Rule XI: The proposition 
connects words representing related things. 

Blackbirds is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, 
neuter gender, and is construed as the complement of the prepo- 
sition of, and must therefore be in the objective case, according to 
Rule XII: The complement of a preposition must be in the ol^'ective 
case. 

II. £xample^ for Analysis and Parsing;. 

1. Mine are the gardens of earth and sea. 

2. The stars themselves have flowers for me. 

3. Mary went from New York to Norfolk in the cars. 

4. The anchor clung to the rock with tenacity. 

5. I kept my eye upon the receding mass of ice. 

6. We ran to the dark spot in the center of the mass. 

7. A movement of the tide set the ice in motion. 

8. Thou hast kept thy word with me to the last moment. 

9. A yell of indignation sounded on all sides. 

10. He fell dead at the feet of the white woman by a blov^ of the 
tomahawk. 

III. Examples in False (Syntax. 

1. This is between he and I. 

2. Who do you clerk for? 

3. They who much is given to, will have much to answer for. 

4. Who is that boy talking to? 

5. Who shall I direct this letter to? 

6. I don't know who his daughter married. 

7. Who did he receive that intelligence from? 

8. I hope it is not I he is displeased with. 

9. It is not I he is engaged Avith. 

10. To poor we there is not much hope remaining. 

11. The person who I traveled with sold his horse. 

12. He laid the blame on hisself. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



141 



IV. Write ten sentences illustrating the principles discussed in 
this Lesson. • 







s 
c 






'a. Preposition. 
b. Complement. 
' a» Substantive. 

b. Adjective. 

c. Adverbial. 

3. Rules and Forinulais, XI and XII. 

4. Models. 



1, Parts. 



2. Kinds. 



LESSOX XL. 
Infliiitiyes and Participles. 

344. Infinitives and Participles are used in three ways, viz : 

I. As SubstantlTes. 
II. As Modifiers. 
III. To Abridge Discourse. 

345. The Infinitive is used 

1. Substantively, viz: 

a. As Subject; as, To love is pleasant 

b. As Appositive ; as, Time to come is called future, 

c. As Attribute ; as, To be good is to be happy. 

d. As the Complement of a verbal adjective; as, He was 

desirous to go. 

e. As the complement of an inceptive verb; as, He tries 

to learx. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Adverbially, 

a. After a verb of motion to show its design 5 as^ He went 

TO YisiT his brother, 

b. To express purpose ; as, The cavalry were sent to recon- 

NOITER. 

c. To denote excess or defect; as, He was too sick to 

SIT UP. 

3. To Abridge Discourse. 

a. With a Substantive Connective ; as^ He knows how to 

DO it, 

b. With a subject in the objective case ; as^ He told him 

TO GO. 

346. The Participle is used 

1. Substantively, viz : 

a. As the subject of a finite verb ; as^ Stealing is base. 

b. As an Attribute equivalent to the subject; as^ Seeing 

is BELIEVING. 

c. As the Complementary object ; as, We should avoid^ 

BREAKING a promise; He wa^ killed by falling from 
his horse. 

2. Adjectively ; as, The roaring billows terrify the tremb- 

ling passengers. 

3. To Abridge Discourse. 

a. With a noun or pronoun in the nominative as its 

subject^ forming the Absolute Construction; 

^s, The DOOR being open, the thief escaped. 

b. Eeferring to the subject, attribute or complement, 

forming the Conjunctive Participial Con- 
struction ; as, Ireland is an island^ bounded on the 

west by the Atlantic ocean. 

c. Witli a preposition instead of a Clause; as, On 

approaching the house, I saw that it was on fire; They 
could not be restrained fFvOM uurling darts; I heard of 

HIS coming. 



I 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 143 

347. Infinitives and Participles present the idea of the verb 
loithoiit limitation^ hut ALWAYS refer to some subject. 

348. ^Whenever the subject of an infinitive is expressed, it is in 
the objective case. Hence, we infer 

RUIiE XIII. 

The SUBJECT of the InfinitiTe must he in the OBJECTIVE 
case; as, He told lilM to go. 

FORMUIiA XIII. 

Species? Person? Xumber? Gender? Constrnc- 
tion? Case? Rule XIII. 

Remark. — Whenever an infinitive is used as the subject of another 
verb, and its subject is expressed, that subject must be preceded by 
the preposition for; as, For me to live is Christ. 

349. Sometimes clauses are abridged, the connective being changed 
into a preposition, the subject being put in the possessive case, and 
the verb being changed into a participle ; as, I was not aware of his 

COMING = THAT HE WOULD COME ; FoSSeSSed BEYOND THE MuSE's PAINT- 
ING = WHAT THE Muse could paint. Hence, we infer 

RUIiE XIV. 

The SUBJECT o/ a PARTICIPLE, GOVERNED BY A PREPOSITIO^, 
must he in the possessive case. 

for:?iui.a XIV. 

Species ? Person ? !\ umber ? Oender ? Agreement ? 
(Rule III.) Coustruction ? Case? Rule XIV. 

350. After certain verbs, subordinate propositions are frequently 
abridged by omitting the connective and changing the subject into 
the objective form, and the verb into the participial form; as. We 
saw them approaching us =; that they were appeoaching us. 
Hence, we infer 

RUI.E XV. 

The SUBJECT of the complementary participle must he in 
the OBJECTIVE car.c. 



144 i:NGLISH GRAMMAR. 

FORMriiA XV. 

Species? Person? Number? Oender? Agreement? 
Rule III. Construction? Case? Rule XV. 

351. InlinitiTes, Participles and ImperatiTes always 
refer to some subject, to which they attribute an activity, a passivity, 
or a simple mode of existence, in a subordinate way. Hence, we 
infer 

RUI.E XVI. 

The Infinite verh depends on the word to which it refers. 

FORMUIiA XVI. 

Species? Principal Parts? Conjugation? Form 
and Condition ? Reference? Dependence? Rule XVI. 

352. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. To love is pleasant. 
Analysis. 

To love is pleasant is a simple categorical proposition, of which 
to love is the subject, being an abridged proposition, of which the 
connective and subject are omitted and the verb changed into the 
infinitive form ; is pleasant is the predicate, of which is is the 
copula, and pleasant, the attribute. 

Parsing. 

To love is an indefinite transitive verb, principal parts, love, loved, 
loved, of the weak conjugation ; it is the present active infinitive, 
and refers to some indefinite subject, on which it depends, according 
to Rule XVI : The infinitive verh depends on the word to which it 
refers. 

Ex. 2. The general sent him to reconnoiter. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which the general is the 
subject, being complex, &c.; sent him to reconnoiter is the predicate, 
being complex, of which sent is the basis, modified by him to recon- 
noiter, an abridged adverbial element of the third class, of which 
the connective is omitted, the subject is changed to the objective 
form, and the verb to the infinitive form. 



A 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 145 



Parsing. 



Him is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, to agree with some object of like qualities 
present to the mind, according to Rule III : The pronoun must he 
in the same person, number and gender as the object which it 
represents ; it is construed as the subject of the infinitive to recon- 
noiter, and must therefore be in the objective case, according to 
Rule XIII : The subject of the infinitive must be in the objective case. 

To reconnoiter is an indefinite transitive verb, principal parts, recon- 
noiter, reconnoitered, reconnoiter ed, of the weak conjugation; it is 
the present active infinitive, and refers to him on which it depends, 
according to Rule XYI : The infinitive verb depends on the word to 
which it refers. 

3. I heard of his coming. 
Analysis. 

/ heard of his coming is a complex categorical proposition, of which 
/is the subject, and heard of his coming, the predicate, being com- 
plex, of which heard is the basis, modified by of his coming, an 
abridged objective element of the third class, of which the prepo- 
sition of is substituted for the connective, the subject is changed 
into the possessive form, his, and the verb is changed into the 
participial form, coming. 

Parsing. 

Of is a preposition, and shows the relation of his coming to heard, 
which words it connects, according to Rule XI: The preposition 
connects loords representing related things. 

His is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
and masculine gender, to agree with an object of like qualities, 
according to Rule III: The pronoun must be in the same person, 
number, and gender as the object which it represents; it is construed 
as the subject of coming, and must therefore be in the possessive 
case, according to Rule XIV: The subject of a participle governed 
hg a preposition must be in the possessive case. 

Coming is an intransitive verb, principal parts, come, came, come, of 
the strong conjugation, it is the present active participle, and 
refers to his on which it depends, according to Rule XVI: The 
infinite verb depends on the word to which it refers. 

13 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. We saw them approaching us. 

We saw them approaching us is a complex categorical proposition, of 
■which we is the subject, and saw them approaching us, the predicate, 
being complex, of which saw is the basis, modified by them approach- . 
ing us, an abridged objectiye element of the third class, of which 
the connective is omitted, the subject is changed to the objective 
form them, and the verb to the participial form approaching, modi- 
fied by us, an objective element of the first class. 

Panning. 

Them is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
and masculine gender, to agree with objects of like qualities, 
according to Rule III; (^Repeat Rule III.) It is construed as the 
subject of the complementary participle approaching, and must 
therefore be in the objective case, acording to Rule XV: The 
subject, ^c 

II. Examples Tor AnalyssiiS and Parsing. 

1. The boy learned to write. 

2. The girl was anxious to learn. 

3. I heard Spurgeon preach. 

4. I saw him fall. 

5. They ordered him to leave. 

6. I am pleased to see you knitting. 

7. I saw him returning. 

8. I heard of his dying. 

9. They fled, pursued by our cavalry. — 

10. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again, 

11. I ordered John to be punished. 

12. I saw him standing on the corner. 

III. Examples in False S»yntax. 

1. I insist on Mm staying with me. 

2. I rely on you coming to-morrow. 

3. What do you think of your son marrying? 

4. His father was opposed to him going to Europe. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



147 



5. Much depends on this rule being observed. 

6. Such will ever be the effect of youth associating with vicious 
companions. 

7. What can be the cause of the government neglecting so import- 
ant a matter. 

IV. Exercises in Composition. 

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of participles and infini- 
tives. 










PS 



M 

H 

M 






c 



s 
© 



III. 



1. Substantively, a. b, c, d, e. 

2. Adverbially, a, b, c. 

3. To Abridge Discourse, a, b. 

1. Substantively. «, b, c. 

2. Adjectively. 

3. To Abridge Discourse, d, b, c, 

' 1. Objective-Subject. Rule and Formula XIII. 

2. Possessive-Subject. Rule and Formula XIV. 

3. Complementary-Participle. Rule and Formula XV. 

4. Infinite Verb. Rule and Formula XVI. 

Models. 1, 2, 3, 4. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XLI. 
Independent Elements. 

353. The Independent Elements express peculiarities of 

thought and sentiment^ and include certain 

(1.) Exclaniative ] 

(2.) Idiomatic [ Formis. 

(3.) Abridged J 

354. The Exclamatiye include 

(a.) A noun or pronoun representing an object addressed j as, 

John", bring me the hook, 
[b.) An Interjection ; as, Alas! alas I fair Inez! 
[c) An Elliptical Exclamative sentence j as, Mary exclaimed 

beautiful! beautiful! 

355. The Idiomatic include 

(a.) Expletives, Correlatives and Intensives ; as, There is a 

God; Now — then; verily, tea. 
[b.) Pleonasm; as, TJie boy — oh! where was he f 
(c.) A noun used independently to express distance, manner, 

&c.; as, He is six years old. 

356. The Abridged include 

(a.) A Participle or Infinitive used independently; as, Seeing 

me, he hurried off; But to proceed, I was there early, 
[b.) An Adjective used absolutely after an Infinitive or 
Participle ; as, He was haunted with the dread of being 
poor; The way to be happy is to be good. 

(c.) A noun or pronoun and participle used absolutely; 
as, The rain having ceased, we departed, 

357. As a noun or pronoun used independently or absolutely has 
the same form as the subject of a finite verb, we infer 

RUIiE XVII. 

A NOUN or PRONOUN used ABSOLUTELY or independently 

must he in the nominative case. 

13* 



II 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 149 

for:»iui.a XVII. 

Species? Person? Number? Oencler? (Ifa pronoun, 
agreement and Rule III.) Construction? Case? Rule 
XVII. 

358. As Particles are words used to express shades of thought 
and sentiment, but are not connected grammatically with other 
words, we infer 

RUIiE XVIII. 

Particles and independent elements have no gram- 
matical relation to other icords. 

FORMUIiA XVIII. 

Species? Use? Rule? 

359. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. The rain having ceased, we departed. 
Analysis. 

The rain having ceased, we departed is a complex categorical proposi- 
tion, of which we is the subject; departed, the rain having ceased is 
the predicate, being complex, of which departed is the hasisy 
modified by the rain having ceased, an abridged causal clause or 
adverbial element of the third class, of which the connective is 
omitted, the rain is the subject, being complex, of which rain is the 
basis, distributed by the, an adjective element of the first class; 
having ceased is the predicate, of which the auxiliary is changed 
into the participial form, having. 

Parsing. 

Rain is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and is used absolutely with having ceased, and must 
therefore be in the nominative case, according to Rule XVII: A 
noun or pronoun used absolutely or independently must be in the nomi- 
native case. 

Having ceased is an intransitive verb, principal parts, cease, ceased, 
ceased, of the weak conjugation ; it is the perfect active participle, 
and depends upon rain to which it refers, according to Rule XYI: 
The infinite verb depends on the word to which it refers. 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ex. 2. There is a God. 

Analysis. 

There is a God is a simple categorical proposition, of which a God is 
the subject, being complex, of which God is the basis, distributed 
by (2, an adjective element of the first class; there is is the predi- 
cate, of which there is an expletive, and is is the predicate. 

Parsing. 

There is an expletive, a word used to render the sentence more 
euphoneous, and has no grammatical relation to the other words 
in the sentence, according to Rule XYIII: Particles and independent 
elements have no grammatical relation to other words* 

Ex. 3. Mary^ let Clara zee you crocheting. 
Analysis. 

This is a complex imperative sentence, of which the independent 
element Mary is the subject, and let Clara see you crocheting is the 
predicate, being complex, of which let is the basis, modified by 
Clara see you crocheting, an abridged objective element of the third 
class, of which Clara is the objective-subject, and see you cro- 
cheting is the predicate, being complex, of which see is the basis, 
modified by you crocheting, an abridged objective element of the 
third class, of which the connective is omitted, the subject is 
changed into the objective form, and the verb into the participial 
form, crocheting. 

Parsing. 

Mary is a proper noun, of the second person, singular number, 
feminine gender; it represents an object addressed, and must 
therefore be in the nominative case, according to Rule XYI. A 
noun or pronoun used absolutely or independently must be in the nomi- 
native case. 

Let is a Definite Transitive verb, principal parts, let, let, let, of the 
weak conjugation ; it is the present imperative, and refers to Mary 
on which it depends, according to Rule XVI: The infinite verb 
depends on the word to which it refers, 

Clara is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, femi- 
nine gender, and is construed as the subject of the infinitive see, 
and must therefore be in the objective case, according to Rule 
XIII : The subject of the ii^finitiv^ must be in the objective case. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 151 

See is a Definite Transitive verb, principal parts, see, saw, seen, of 
the strong conjugation; it is the present active infinitive (to being 
omitted after let), and refers to Clara, on which it depends, 
according to Rule XVI: The infinite verb depends on the word to 
which it r^ers. 

You is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular number, 
feminine gender, to agree with Mary, which it represents, accord- 
ing to Rule III: A pronoun, ^'c, it is construed as the subject of 
the complementary participle, crocheting, and must therefore be in 
the objective case, according to Rule XV: The subject of the com- 
plementary participle micst be in the objective case. 

Crocheti7ig is an indefinite transitive verb, principal parts, crochet, 
crocheted, crocheted, of the weak conjugation ; it is the present 
active participle, and refers to you on which it depends, according 
to Rule XVI : The infinite verb depends on the word to which it refers. 

Note. — The student should note the fact, that let, see, and cocheting 
are parsed by the same rule. This is because infinitives, parti- 
ciples and imperatives are in the same predicament, sustaining a 
relation of dependence. 

II. Examples for Analyisiis and Parising. 

1. Hamlet and the Ghost. 



Hamlet. 


It waves me still. 




Go on, ril follow tbee. 


Ghost 


Mark me ! 


Hamlet, 


I will. 


Ghost. 


My hour is almost come. 




When I to sulphurous and tormenting flames 




Must render up myself. 


Hamlet. 


Alas, poor ghost! 


Ghost. 


Pity me not, but lend thy serious hearing 




To what I shall unfold. 


Hamlet. 


Speak ; I am bound to hear. 



2. And God said, Let there he light. 

Remark. — Eet depends upon God. This sentence cannot be 
satisfactorily explained by the old method of making the imperative 
agree with thou or you understood. 



152 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



III. Examples in False l§iy]itax* 

1. Him coming in, we departed. 

2. Esteeming theirselves wise, they became fools. 

3. Let them and we unite to oppose this growing evil. 

4. They being the most injured, he had reason to love. 

I V, Write ten sentences containing independent elements. 





id 

9 









I. Kinds. 



II. Rnles, <&:c. 



1. Exclamative. a, h, c. 

2. Idiomatic, a, 5, c. 

3. Abridged, a, h, c. 

1. Absolute Construction. XVII. 

2. Particles. XVIII. 
III. Hodels. 1, 2, 3. Note. Remark. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 153 

LESSOR XLII. 
Quantitatiye Complement. 

360. A noun used without a preposition to express distance^ 
direction^ extent^ manner ^ measure^ quantity^ time^ value or loetght^ 
is put in the objective case without a governing word; as, 

Willie slept four HOURS. And since nouns thus used generally 
answer the questions, How far? In what direction f How long? 
How much? &c., the construction may appropriately bo termed 
the Quantitative Complemeiit. Hence we infer 

RUI.E XIX, 

The QUANTITATIYE COMPLEMENT must he put in the OBJEC- 
TIVE case without a governing word; as, John wears his cloak coat 
FASHION. 

FORMUL.A XIX. 

Species? Person? Number? Gender? Construc- 
tion ? Case ? Rule XIX. 

Remark. — In Greek and Latin this construction is called the 
Accusative of Limitation or Measure. 

361. I. ^lodels of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. The hoard is twelve feet long. 

Analysis. 

The board is tivelve feet long is a simple categorical proposition, of 
which the board is the subject, being complex, of which board is 
the basis, marked definite by the, an adjective element of the first 
class ; is twelve feet long is the predicate, of which is is the copula, 
and twelve feet long is the attribute, being complex, of which long 
is the basis, modified by twelve feet, an independent adverbial 
element of the first class, being complex, of ^y'hich. feet is the basis, 
modified by twelve, an adjective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Feet is a common noun, of the third person, and in the plural num- 
ber, to agree with tivelve, according to Rule YI: A noun modi/led 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

hy a Distributive or Definitive must agree with it in number. It is in 
the neuter gender, and is used as the quantitative complement, and 
must therefore be in the objective case, according to Rule XIX: 
The quantitative complement must be put in the objective case without a 
governing word. 

Ex. 2. The knife is worth a dollar. 
Analysis. 

The knife is worth a dollar is a simple categorical proposition, of 
which the knife is the subject, being complex, of which knife is the 
basis, marked definite by the, an adjective element of the first 
class ; is worth a dollar is the predicate, of which is is the copula, 
and worth a dollar is the attribute, being complex, of which worth 
is the basis, modified by a dollar, an independent adverbial ele- 
ment of the first class, being complex, of which dollar is the basis, 
distributed by a, an adjective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Worth is a descriptive adjective, of the qualifying kind, not com- 
pared; is used with is to form the predicate, and refers to knife 
with which it is construed, according to Rule V : The adjective 
must be construed with the word representing the object to which it 
refers. 

Dollar is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender ; is used as the quantitative complement, and must 
therefore be in the objective case, according to Rule XIX: The 
quantitative complement must be put in the objective case without a 
governing word. 

Ex. 3. He went home. 
Analysis. 

He went home is a simple categorical proposition, of which he is the 
subject and went home, the predicate, being complex, of which 
went is the basis, modified by home, an independent adverbial 
element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Home is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender ; is usefl as the quantitative complement, and must 
therefore be in the objective case, according to Rule XIX: The 

quantitative complement must be put in the objective case xvithout a 
governing xvord. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 155 

II. Examples for Analyisiis and Parsing. 

1. I do not care a fig. 

2. John is fourteen years old. 

3. He is head and heart in love. 

4. The ditch is fifteen feet deep. 

5. John went home this morning. 

6. The lady weighed ninety-nine pounds. 

7. The army marched fifteen miles. 

8. James walks dandy fashion. 

9. His pantaloons are a world too wide. 

10. He remained in Europe three years. 

11. I was married ten years ago. 

12. The horse was worth three hundred dollars. 

III. Examples in False l§iyntax. 

1. He is of six years old. 

2. Mr. Drew presented the Methodists with $500,000. 

3. The board was of six feet long. 

4. I will go on to-morrow. 

5. Let a gallows be made of fifty cubits high. 

6. To a man of forty or fifty years old. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing quantitative complements. 



Outline 


' 1. 


Relations expressed. 


2. 
. 3. 


Rule and Formula XIX 
Models. 1, 2, 3. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XLIII. 
Transito-Dative Yerbs. 

362. Thus far but four species of verbs have been treated, viz: 
Intransitive^ Copulative j Indefinite Transitive and Definite Transitive. 
There remain four species yet to be examined, viz: Transito-Dative^ 
Transito- Copulative^ Transito-Partitive and Inceptive, 

363. A Transito-Dative Verb asserts an activity which 
affects two objects, the one denoting what is done to or 
for the other ; as, James gave me a dollar. 

Note 1. — The following and verbs of similar meaning belong 
to this species^ viz : Ask^ bring ^ huy^ carry ^ deny^ do^ draw^ find^ get 
give, lend^ leave, makej order ^ pasSj play, present^ promise^ provide, refuse^ 
sell^ sendj sing, showj teach, tellj throw and ivrite, 

Note 2. — A sentence containing a Transito-Dative verb may take 
one of four forms, viz: 

1. William taught me grammar. 

2. William taught grammar to me. 

3. Grammar was taught to me. 

4. I was taught grammar. 

Note 3. — Of the two complements which follow Transito-Dative 
verbs, the one denoting that to or for w^hich anything is done, is 
called the indirect complement; the one denoting what is done is 
called the direct complement 

Note 4. — The relative position of the direct and the indirect 
complements depends on their nature. The natural order of con- 
struction is to place the indirect first, but this order is reversed, 
when the indirect complement has more quantity or is a longer 
word than the direct complement. Observe the difference in the 
following sentences: 

(1.) John gave him a dollar. 
(2.) John gave it to him. 

In the second sentence. Strength requires that the indirect com- 
vlement should be placed after the direct complemeyit. The student 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 157 

should note the fact, that whenever the indirect follows the direct^ 
it must be preceded by a preposition. When the indirect com- 
plement is preceded by for^ it is always placed after the direct 
object; as, He gave a dollar for it. 

KoTE 5. — When the verb takes the passive form, either object 
may become the subject; as, Grammar was taught me; or, I was 
taught GRAMMAR, the latter being the preferable form on account of 
strength. Whenever the verb is changed to the passive form and 
the indirect complement made the subject, the direct complement 
remains in the objective case. In the above sentence, the word gram- 
mar is used to complement the verb taught, and should be parsed by 
Rule X. This construction is identical with the Latin, Ego rogaius 
sum seiitentiamj or the Greek, 'Epcjrcjfzai, ri/v yvcj/LLyv = I was asked 

MY OPINION. 

364. I. Models^ of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. (1.) John gave George A dollar. 

Analysis. 

John gave George a dollar is a simple categorical proposition, of which 
John is the subject, and gave George a dollar is the predicate, 
being complex, of which gave is the basis, modified by George, an 
indirect objective element of the first class, and also by a dollar, a 
direct objective element of the first class, being complex, of which 
dollar is the basis, distributed by a, an adjective element of the 
first class. 

Parsing. 

Gave is a Transito- Dative verb, principal parts, give, gave, given, of 
the strong conjugation, indicative mode, past tense, common form, 
and of the third person, singular number, to agree with its subject 
John, according to Rule II: The finite verb must agree with its 
subject in person and number. 

George is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, and is construed as the indirect complement after the 
iransito- dative verb gave, and must therefore be in the objective 
case, according to Rule X: The complement of a verb must be in the 
objective case. 

14 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Dollar is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and is construed as the complement of gave, and 
must therefore be in the objective case, according to Rule X: The 
complement of the verb must be in the objective case, 

Ex. (2.) He gave it to John. 
Analysii§. 

He gave it to John is a simple categorical proposition, of which he 
is the subject, and gave it to John is the predicate, being complex, 
of which gave is the basis, modified (^) by it, an objective element 
of the first class, and (2) by to John, an indirect objective element 
of the second class, of which to is the connective and John the 
objective part. 

Parising. 

To is a preposition, and shows the relation of John to gave, which 
words it connects, according to Rule XI : The preposition connects 
words representing related things, 

John is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, and is construed as the complement of the prepo- 
sition to, and must therefore be in the objective case, according 
to Rule XII: The complement of a preposition must be in the objective 
case. 

Ex. (3.) I was taught grammar. 

/ was taught grammar is a simple categorical proposition, of which I 
is the subject, and was taught grammar is the predicate, being 
complex, of which was taught is the basis, modified by grammar^ 
an objective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Grammar is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and is construed as the complement of taught, and 
must therefore be in the objective case, according to Rule X: The 
complement of a verb must be in the objective case. 

M. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Please lend me a pencil. 

2. He refused me an audience, 

3. Show her your picture. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 159 

4. They presented a watch to Mr. Scott. 

5. She played many pretty pieces for the company. 

6. Did he promise you his assistance? 

7. They threw a rope to the man overboard. 

8. Make Charles a pair of shoes. 

9. Sing us a song. 

10. Please get me a drink. 

11. I will sell you the book for a dollar. 

12. Ask James for his Dictionary. 

III. Examples in False Siyntax. 

1. They gave him it. 

2. Show to her your picture. 

3. They presented to the speaker a cane. 

4. Sing for us a song. 

5. You were paid a high compliment by Miss Fanny. 

6. We were shown an apple that weighed five pounds. 

Remark. — When the verb is changed from the active to the passive 
form, the direct complement should be made the subject, not the 
indirect, 

IV. Write ten sentences containing Transito-Dative verbs. 

r !• Notes. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. 
Outline 36. \ 

(3. Models. 1,2,3. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON" XLIV. 
Transito-Copulatiye and Transito-Partitive Terbs. 

365. A Transito-Copulative verb asserts an activity 
which affects an object of which it predicates an attribute; 
as, They ^IjEQU'M) him president ; She dyed her shawl red. 

Note 1. — The following and verbs of similar meaning belong 
to this species, viz: Appoint^ call^ consider^ constitute^ create, elect, esteerrij 
make, name, paint, reckon ^ regard j render j style and think. 

Note 2. — When these verbs take the passive form, the complement 
becomes the subject, and the attribute remains after the verb, but is 
attracted into the case of the subject ; as. They called her Julia ^aSA^ 
was called Julia. 

Note 3. — A similar construction is found in several languages, and 
this mode of treating it explains some very difl&cult grammatical ques- 
tions. We find it in French ; as, Ma divinity ne me sers plus qu' a 
rendre mon malheur eternal = My divinity serves rather to make my 
MISFORTUNE ETERNAL. So, too, witli Greek. 'OvTOL de E'lSeog fiev ovdev 
edsovro xpV^^'ov z= They did not regard beauty necessary, -^oliog ijv 
alSc} KaAov/Liev ^= Fear which we call bashfulness. In both sentences 
the verb is followed by two words, one of which is the attribute, and 
agrees with the other in number, gender and case, according to Rule 
IV. This rule explains the gender of rjv and the case of xPW'ov. 

366. A Transito-Partitive verb asserts an activity 
which affects only a part of its complement; as. He drinks 
ivater; he felt the hoard; he tasted the wine, 

Note 1. — These verbs are generally followed by the preposition 
of used in a partitive sense. 

Note 2. — All verbs which express an operation of the senses (except 
sight) or of the appetites belong to this species. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 161 

367. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

(1.) The}/ elected him president. 

Analysis. 

This is a simple categorical proposition, of which they is the subject; 
elected him president is the predicate, being complex, of which 
elected is the basis, modified by him president, an objective element 
of the first class, being complex, of which him is the basis, modi- 
dified hy president, an adjective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Elected is a transito-copulative verb, principal parts, elect, elected, 
elected, of the weak conjugation, indicative mode, past tense, 
common form, and of the third person, plural number, to agree 
with its subject they according to Rule II: The finite verb must 
agree ivith its subject in person and number. 

Him is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, to agree with some object of like qualities 
present to the mind, according to Rule III : The pronoun must be 
in the same person, number and gender as the object which it represents. 
It is construed as the complement of elected, and must therefore 
be in the objective case, according to Rule X: The complement of 
a verb must be in the objective case. 

President is a common noun, of the third person, and of the singular 
number, masculine gender, and objective case to agree with him, 
of which it is predicated, according to Rule IV: A noun or pronoun 
predicated of another noun or pronoun must be in the same number, 
gender and case. 

Ex. 2. He ate of the tree of the Jcnowledge of good and evil. 

Analysis. 

This is a simple categorical proposition, of which he is the subject, 
and ate of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil is the predicate, 
being complex^ of which ate is the basis, modified by of the tree, 
^c, an indirect objective element of the second class, of which of 
is the connective, and tree, ^c, the objective part, being complex, 
&c. 

14^ 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Parsing. 

Ate is a transito-partitive verb, principal parts, eat^ ate, eaten, of the 
strong conjugation, indicative mode, past tense, com-mon form, 
and in the third person, singular number, to agree with its sub- 
ject he, according to Rule II. (Repeat the Rule.) 

Of is a preposition, and shows the relation of tree to ate, which 
words it connects, according to Rule XI : The preposition connects 
words representing related things. 

Remark. — The remaining words are parsed in the ordinary way. 

Ex. 3. He dranh wine. 
Analysis. 

He dranh wine is a simple categorical proposition, of which he is the 
subject, and drank wine is the predicate, being complex, of which 
drank is the basis, modified by wine, an objective element of the 
first class. 

Parsing. 

Drank is a Transito-Partitive verb, principal parts, drink, drank, 
drunken or drunk, of the strong conjugation, indicative mode, past 
tense, common form, and in the third person, singular number, 
to agree with its subject he, according to Rule II: The finite verb 
must agree with its subject in person and number. 

Wine is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, is used as the complement of the Transito-Partitive 
verb drank, and must therefore be in the objective case, according 
to Rule X : The complement of a verb must be in the objective case. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. They appointed me chairman, 

2. Do you call your daughter Mary? 

3. The people consider them impostors. 

4. The Senate elected him clerk. 

5. They constituted him their king, 

6. Paint the door blue. 

7. He tasted the grapes 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 163 

8. He smelt the fragrance of roses, 

9. Does John eat peaches? 

10. He felt the table 

11. They touched the ceiling. 

12. The officers caught him. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. They called him Jane. 

2. She was considered a good teacher. 

3. They elected her professor of mathematics. 

4. They regarded her a gifted poet. 

5. They named their daughter Francis. 

6. They made her a doctor. 

IV. Write ten sentences, using Transi to-Copulative and Partitive 

verbs. 



•N OS 



1. Transito-Copulative verbs. Notes 1, 2 and 3. 

2. Transito-Partitive verbs. Notes 1 and 2. 
[^ 3. Models, 1, 2, 3. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XLY, 
Inceptiye Verbs and Verbal Adjectiyes. 

368. An Inceptive Verb asserts the incipiency of an 
act completed in the infinitive or adjective which follows 
it; as, Se desires to go; John tries to learn; I feel 
cold, 

369. A Verbal Adjective expresses a relation or men- 
tal affection; as, Be kind to thy father ; I am hungry 
for fruit. 

370. Verbal adjectives require an indirect object to complete their 
meaning. They are of two kinds, viz: 

1. Tbose expressing a relation, viz: 

(a.) Advantage or disadvantage ; as, 'Kind to his friends, 

[h.) Facility or difficulty, as ; Easy of access, 

(c.) Fitness or unfitness; as, Fit /or a king, 

[d.) Likeness or unlikeness ; as, Like to an eagle, 

[e.) Proximity or remoteness; as, Close to the river, 

(/.) Usefulness or uselessness; as, Useful to all, 

Suggestion. — It seems to me that all adjectives of the comparative 
and superlative degrees belong to this class, and should be construed 
accordingly. In the sentence, John is taller than George, taller ex- 
presses the relation of John to George with respect to size. Now, 
suppose titan be regarded as a preposition and Oeorge as its com- 
plement, and the phrase titan George as complementary of the 
relation expressed by taller, would not the construction be disposed 
of satisfactorily? The usual method of supplying words and of re- 
quiring the noun or pronoun following tltait to be put in the nomina- 
tive case, is not fully sustained by analogy. I will venture the remark 
that such expressions as greater than me are in accordance with the 
genius of English syntax. The French say: Vous etez plus heureux que 
moiz=z You are happier than me. 

3. Tltose expressing a mental affection, viz: 

{a.) Appetite or passion ; as, Hungry /or/rw^V. 
{h.) Certainty or doubt; as, Certain of success. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 165 

{c.) Desire or aversion; as, Desirous of praise, 

{d.) Knowledge or ignorance; as. Mindful of a kindness, 

(e.) Patience or impatience; as, l^^iFATiEST of restraint, 

(/.) Power or weakness; as, SmoyG for the fight, 

{g.) Plenty or want; as, Full of hope, 

(A.) Remembering or forgetting ; as, Forgetful of results, 

{i, ) Sharing or withholding; as. Lavish of expense, 

' The student should carefully note the difference between 
Intransitive J Copulative and Inceptive Verbs. 

a. Intransitive verbs express a mode of existence or state j and 

are followed by adverbs not adjectives; as, The moon shines 
BRIGHTLY (not bright). 

b. Copulative verbs express being, becoming, dx., and are fol- 

lowed by adjectives as attributes; as, John became kind 
(not kindly). 

c. Inceptive verbs express some inherent energy or semblance, 

and are followed by adjectives which answer the question 
howf as. He tries hard (not hardly); She looks cold 
(not coldly). 

372. I Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. He tries to learn. 

Analysis. 

He tries to learn is a complex categorical proposition, of which he is 
the subject, and tries to learn is the predicate, of which tries is the 
copula, and to learn the attribute, being an abridged substantive 
element of the third class, of which the connective and subject are 
omitted, and the verb changed into the infinitive form, to learn. 

Parsing. 

Tries is an Inceptive verb, principal parts, try, tried, tried, of the 
weak conjugation, &c. 

To learn is an Indefinite Transitive verb, principal parts, learn, 
learned, learned, of the weak conjugation; it is the present active 
infinitive, and refers to he on which it depends, according to Rul« 
XVI. {Repeat the Rule.) 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ex. 2. The place is easy of access. 

The place is easy of access is a simple categorical proposition, of 
which the place is the subject, «&;c., and is easy of access is the 
predicate, of which is is the copula and easy of access, the attri- 
bute, being complex, of which easy is the basis, modified by of 
access, an objective element of the second class, of which of is the 
connective and access the objective part. 

Parsing. 

Of is a preposition and shows the relation of access to easy, which 
words it connects, according to Rule XI: The S^c, 

Access is a Verbal noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and is construed as the complement of of and 
must therefore be in the objective case, according to Rule XII: 

The ^c. 

Ex. 3. I feel sich. 

Analyssis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which / is the subject 
and feel sick is the predicate, being complex, of which feel is the 
basis modified by sick, an abridged objective element of the third 
class, of which the connective, subject and copula are omitted, and 
sick is the attribute. 

"^^ This sentence is equivalent to the expression, / feel that I am 

SICK. 

Parsing. 

Sick is a Descriptive adjective of the qualifying kind, compared, 
sick, sicker, sickest, of the positive degree ; it is used with feel to 
form the predicate, and refers to / with which it is construed, 
according to Rule V. [Repeat the Rule.) 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Be kind to your friends. 

2. John is inexperienced in business. 

3. William is like his brother. 

4. The house is near the mountain. 



di 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



167 



5. Be mindful of his favors. 

6. He is older than his brother. 

7. Orgetorix was the richest of the Helvetians. 

8. Henry is weary of business. 

9. James is fond of apples. 

10. The entertainment was fit for a prince. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. He was conversant with many languages. 

2. His acts are inconsistent to his profession. 

3. They are skillful in playing. 

4. The offer was agreeable with my views. 

5. He is congenial with his friends. 

6. His house is contiguous with the road. 

IV. Write ten seyitences containing verbal adjectives. 



QT) 

9 



I. Inceptive Verbs. 

II Verbals / 1- ^^ elation, a, h, c, d, e, f. Sug. 

\ 2. Mental affection, a, b, c, d, e, /, y, h, i, 

in. Note. «, b, c. 

[^ IV. Models. 1, 2, 3. 



168 EN^GLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XLYI. 

Modal Propositions. Postulates. 

873. A Modal proposition (§ 250) is one whose predi- 
cate expresses 

1 . Sxcogitation ; as, / COULI) PAINT the how upon the 

bended heavens. 

2. Obligation 9 propriety or worthiness; as, God 

IS TO BE worshiped ] /SHOULD go. 

3. Ifecessity; as, /must GO (present time); /had to 

GO (past time) ; / will have to go to-morrow 
(future time). 

374. Interrogative sentences (§'s 256-260) ask ques- 
tions, and the answer is correlative to part of the sentence. 

Remark 1. — For instance, in the sentence, Did he go? Yes, Sir; or 
iVo, Sir, it becomes important to know the real import of yes and no. 
The etymology of the word yes (gea, yea, and si, let it be) would make 
it a verb, and I am inclined to think that it should be regarded as a 
pro-verb, but, for all practical purposes, as an adverb of degree. 
§ 248, note 2. 

Remark 2. — When the sentence expresses doubt, the verb must be 
in the subjunctive mode, complex form. 

375. Imperative sentences (§ 254) are frequently 
abridged so as to consist of but a single participle ; as, 
Up, get you out of the city ; To arms! to arms! 

376. I. Modals of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. She would have them recollect that she^ too^ teas a sov- 
ereign princess. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex modal proposition, of which she is the subject, and 
would have them recollect, ^c, the predicate, being complex, of 
which would is the basis, modified by the abridged objective ele- 
ments, have them recollect, ^c. 



Il 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 169 



Parsing. 



Would is a definite transitive verb, principal parts, will, would, past 
participle wanting, of the strong conjugation, imperative mode, 
present tense, common form, and in the third person, singular 
number, to agree with its subject she, according to Rule II. [Re- 
peat the Rule.) 

Have is a definite transitive verb, principal parts, have, had, had, 
of the weak conjugation ; it is the present active infinitive (to 
omitted), and refers to she on which it depends, according to Rule 
XVI. [Repeat the Rule.) 

Ex. 2. Did he go? Yes. 
Analysis. 

This is a simple interrogative sentence, of which he is the subject 
and did go the predicate, modified by the affirmative particle yes. 

Parsing. 

Yes is an adverb of degree, and modifies did go^ with which it is 
construed, according to Rule IX. [Repeat the Rule. ) 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. He had a new suit made. 

2. John made George walk. 

3. He had to beg his way. 

4. Queen J King Richard and Northumherland, 
Queen. And must we be divided? Must we part? 

King Richard. Ay, hand from hand, my love, and heart from 

heart. 
Queen. Banish us both, and send the king with me. 
Northum, That were some love, but little policy. 
Queen. Then, whither he goes, thither let me go. 
King Richard, So two, together weeping, make one woe. 

Weep thou for me in France, I for thee here, 

5. I think there be six Richmonds in the fieM; 
Five have I slain to-day instead of him : — 
A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse! 

15 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

III. Examples in Falise l§{yntax. 

1. He has got a cold. 

2. He Las made a fine crop of wheat. 

3. I am necessitated to go. 

4. Wlio did you say went? Him and me. 

5. I have got a new hat. 

6. So fare thee well, my own true love. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing modal propositions. 



^ 



1. Modal Propositions. 1, 2, 3. 

2. Interrogative Sentences. Notes 1 and 2. 

3. Imperative Sentences. 

4. Models. 1, 2. 



\ 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 171 



LESSON XLVII. 

COI^IPIiEX SENTENCES. 

Elements of tlie Third Class. 
SubstantlTe Clauses. 

377. An element of the third class is a sentence used as 
part of another sentence. There are three classes : 

I. Substantive. 
II. Adjective. 
III. Adverbial. 

378. A Clause is an integral part of a complex sentence, 
and consists of 

(1.) Connective. 
(2.) Subject. 
(3.) Predicate. 

379. Substantive Elements of the Third Class consist of 

(1.) Substantive Clauses. 
(2.) Propositions. 
(3.) Postulates. 

380. Substantive Clauses are introduced by 

(a.) Compound Relative Pronouns, (94-97, a). 
(6.) Substantive Conjunctions, (224, a), 
(c.) Interrogatives, consisting of 

a. Interrogative Pronouns, (99). 

/?. Interrogative Adjectives, (106, 2 c). 

7. Interrogative Adverbs, (210, note). 

' 381. Substantive Clauses, together with Propositions and 
Postulates, are used to express the following relations, viz : 

I 

1. Tbe relation of Subject ; as, 

It (a.) What is thoroughly understood, is easily described, 

{h.) That the earth is a sphere, is susceptible of proof, 
. (c.) Why he resigned, is not known. 

I 2. The relation of Attribute 5 as, 

I (a.) The only wonder is, that one head can CONTAIN IT ALL. 

j (6.) Life is WHAT WE make it. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The relation of Complement ; as, 

(a.) You now see why he did not come. 

(5.) Whomsoever the bishop appoints, the church will receive, 

(c.) I will not object to what is reasonable. 

4. The relation of Appositive ; as, 

(a.) The question, Can he succeed? is now discussed, 
(6.) One truth is clear: Whatever is, is right. 

382. Substantive connectives simply introduce tlie clauses of 
which they form a part. Hence we infer 

RUIi£ XX. 

A SUBSTANTIVE CONNECTIVE introduces the clause of which 
it forms a part, 

FORMUL.A XX. 

(1.) If a Conjunction. Species? Use? Introduces what ? 
Rule XX. 

(2.) If an Interrogative Adverb. Species? Use? Modifies 
what? Rule IX. Introduces what? Rule XX. 

(3.) If an Interrogative Adjective. Species? Reference? 
Construction? RuleY. Use? Introduces what ? Rule 
XX. 

(4.) If an Interrogative or Compound Eelative Pronoun. Spe- 
cies? Person, number and gender? To agree with 
what? Rulelll^ Construction? Case? Rule Til, X 
or XII. Use? Introduces what? Rule XX. 

383. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. Whether he can finish the work ^ is doubtful. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of wMcli the substantive 
clause, whether he can finish the work, is the subject, of which 
whether is the connective, he, the subject, and finish the work, the 
predicate, being complex, of which finish is the basis, modified 
by the work, an objective element, «&;c.; is doubtful is the predicate 
of the principal clause, of which is is the copula, and doubtful^ 



the attribute. ! 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 173 

Parsing. 

Whether is a substantive conjunction, is used as a substantive con- 
nective, and introduces the clause of which it forms a part, 
according to Rule XX; A substantive connective introduces the 
clause of which it forms a part 

Ex. 2. Whoever plants trees^ must love others besides himself. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which the substantive 
clause, whoever plants trees, is the subject, of which whoever is the 
connective and subject, plants trees, the predicate, being complex, 
etc.; must love 3fc. is the predicate of the principal clause, etc. 

Parsing. 

Whoever is a Compound Relative Pronoun, of the third person, sin- 
gular number and masculine gender, to agree with an object of 
like qualities present to the mind, according to Rule III, {Repeat 
the Rule); it is construed as the subject of plants, and must 
therefore be in the nominative case, according to Rule I, {Repeat 
the Rule); it introduces the clause, according to Rule XX. {Re- 
peat the Rule.) 

Ex 3. Politicians advocate ivhatever seems popular. 
Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which politicians is the 
subject, and advocate whatever seems popular, the predicate, bein^ 
complex, of which advocate is the basis, modified by the substantive 
clause whatever seems popular, an objective element of the third 
class, of which whatever is the connective and subject, and seems 
popular, the predicate, of which seems is the copula, and popular 
the attribute. 

Parsing. • 

AVhatevee is parsed like whoever. 

Ex. 4. No one knows when ^neas landed in Italy. 

Analysis. 

Knows when ^neas landed in Italy is the predicate, being complex, 
of which knows is the basis, modified by the substantive clause 

15^ 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

when JEneas landed in Italy, an objective element of the third 
class, of which when is the connective, jEneas, the subject, and 
landed in Italy, the predicate, being complex, etc. 

Parrsing^. 

When is an interrogative adverb, used as a substantive connective, 
and modifies landed, with which it is construed, according to Rule 
IX, (Repeat the Rule) ; it introduces the substantive clause, accord- 
ing to Rule XX. (Repeat the Rule.) 

Ex. 5. He said to Mm, " Where have you been?'' 

This is a complex categorical proposition, &c. ; said to him, Where 
have you been? is the predicate, being complex, of which said is 
the basis, modified first by the indirect complement to him, and 
secondly by the interrogative sentence, Where have you been? an 
objective element of the third class, &c. 

Parsing. 

Parse where like when in Example 4. 

Ex. 6. He inquired hy what means I succeeded, 
AnalyisiN. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which he is the subject 
and inquired by what means I succeeded is the predicate, being com- 
plex, of which inquired is the basis, modified by the substantive 
clause, by what means I succeeded^ of which / is the subject, and 
succeeded by ivhat means, the predicate, being complex, of which 
succeeded is the basis, modified by by what means, an adverbial 
element of the second class, of which by is the connective and 
what means the objective part, being complex, of which means is 
the basis, modified by what, an adjective element of the first 
class. 



W 



Parsing. 

What is an interrogative adjective, and refers to means, with which j 
it is construed, according to Rule V, (Repeat the Rule) ; it intro- 
duces the clause of which it forms a part, according to Rule XX. , 
(Repeat the Rule.) : 

i 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



175 



II. Examples for Analysiiis and Parsing. 

1. Will you tell me where you have been? 

2. The farmer declared that his watch had gained half-an-hour, 

3. I will not deny what I said. 

4. Know that in the soul are many lesser faculties. 

5. Whosoever will come, may come. 

6. I will not object to what is reasonable. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. Tell me where you went? 

2. He asked me if I would go. 

3. John wanted to know where I come from. 

4. James told her where John w^ent to. 

5. There is no doubt but he will come. 

6. I am surprised how you could say so. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing substantive claicses. 



• CO 

^ © 



fl . . 









© ^ 



I. Classes. I, II, III. 

II. Parts. 1, 2, 3. 

III. Kinds. 1, 2, 3. 

IV. Connectives, a, h, c, (a, /?, y.) 



V. Uses, 



4 

^A 



1. Subject. «, b, c. 
Attribute, a, b. 
Complement. «, b, c. 

4. Appositive. a, 5. 



VI. Rnle and Formnla XX. 1, 2, 3, 4. 
L VII. Models. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XLVm. 
Adjectiye Elements of the Third Class. 

384. Adjective Elements of the Third Class consist of 

(1.) Relative Clauses. (§'s 92, 93.) 
(2.) Conditional Clauses. (§ 224, 6.) 
(3.) Concessive Clauses. (§ 224 d.) 

385. Relative Clauses are introduced by Relative Pronouns 
(§'s 92, 93, 233), and are used 

[a.) To limit the Subject; as, He whom I loved, is dead, 
{h.) To limit the Attribute; as, He is the wan 'who did it. 
(c.) To limit the Complement; as, Tennyson wrote the poem ^utck 
you admire ; He dwelt in the hous^ that Jack built. 

Remark 1. — As is a relative when it comeg before a verb, or follows 
tuch, many or same. Some grammarians contend that as is never a 
relative ; but as we find such expression^ in Latin as J}fon talis sum qui 
te fallam, in which a relative is translated by as, there is ground for 
regarding as as a relative in certain cases. Besides, it is a convenient 
method of disposing of certain constructions. 

386. Adjective and adverbial connectives (Outline No. 20), which 
may be termed svhordinate connectives, join the clause of which they 
form a part to the word which the clause modifies. Hence, we 
infer 

RUL.E XXI. 

A SUBORDINATE connective joins the clause of which it forms 
a part to the word which the clause modifies. 

FORIflUIiA XXI. 

If a Conjunction. 
Species? Use? Connects what? Rule XXI. 

If a Conjunctive Adverb. 
Species? Use? Modifies what ? Rule IX. Connect i 
what? Rule XXI. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 377 

If a Relative Pronoun. 
Species? Person, number and gender? To agree 
witli what? Rule III. Construction? Case? Rule? 
Use? Connects what? Rule XXI. 

387. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1 The man who escapes censure, is fortunate. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of wliicli the man who 
escapes censure is»tlie subject, being complex, of which man is the 
basis, distributed by the, an adjective element of the first class, 
and modified by the relative clause who escapes censure, an adjec- 
tive element of the third class, of which who is the connective 
and subject, and escapes censure, the predicate, being complex, of 
which escapes is the basis, modified by censure, an objective element 
of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Who is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, to agree with an object of like qualities present 
to the mind, according to Rule III. {Repeat the Rule.) It is con- 
strued as the subject of censure, and must therefore be in the 
nominative case, according to Rule I. (Repeat the Rule.) It joins 
the clause who escapes danger, of which it forms a part, to the word 
man which the clause modifies, according to Rule XXI: A subor- 
dinate connective Joins the clause of which it forms a part to the word 
which the clause modifies. 

Ex. 2. Appoint to office such men as deserve public confidence. 
Analysis. 

This is a complex imperative sentence, of which the subject is the 
name of the persons addressed, and appoint, ^c, is the predi- 
cate, being complex, of which appoint is the basis, modified (i) by 
to office, an adverbial element of the second class, of which to is 
the connective and office the objective part, and [^) by such men as 
deserve public confidence, an objective element of the first class, 
being complex, of which men is the basis, modified (^) by such, an 
adjective element of the first class, and (2) by the relative clause, 
i as deserve public confidence^ an adjective element of the third class, 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of wliich as is the connective and subject, and deserve public confi- 
dence, the predicate, being complex, of which deserve is the basis, 
modified hj public confidence, an objective element of the first class, 
being complex, of which confidence is the basis, modified by public, 
an adjective element of the third class. 

Parking. 

As is a relative pronoun, of the third person, plural number, mas- 
culine gender, to agree with men, which it represents, according 
to Rule III. (^Repeat the Rule.) It is construed as the subject, 
and must therefore be in the nominative case, ac.(;ording to Rule I. 
(^Repeat the Rule.) It joins the clause of which it forms a part 
to the word men which the clause modifies, according to Rule XXL 
A subordinate connective joins the clause of which it forms a part, ^t, 

II* Exampleis for Analysiis and Parsing. 

1. The reward which was promised, shall be given. 

2. The globe on which we live, is in constant motion. 

3. Comperes Epitaph on Samuel Johnson, 
Here Johnson lies — a sage by all allowed 
^ Whom to have bred, may well make England proud; 
Whose prose was eloquence, by wisdom taught, 
The graceful vehicle of virtuous thought j 
Whose verse may claim — grave, masculine and strong, 
Superior praise to the mere poet's song; 
Who many a noble gift from heaven possessed, 
And faith at last, alone worth all the rest. 
O man, immortal by a double prize. 
By fame on earth — by glory in the skies. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. (? 93.) 

1. He was the ablest minister which James ever possessed. 

2. They are tlie game persons who assisted us yesterday. 

3. I am happy in the friend which I have long proved. 

4. No man who knows him would trust him. 

5. The ship and passengers who were lost at sea, 

6. It is not ojrief which bids me moan. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



179 



7. Tlie men and things which he has studied, have not improved 
his morals. 

8. He is like a beast of prey, who destroys without pity. 

9. Humility is one of the most amiable virtues which we can 
possess. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing relative clauses. 



'^ s I w 



' 1. Relative Clauses. 
I, Kinds. \ 2. Conditional Clauses. 
3. Concessive Clauses. 
S S 'S ? A^ II- Uses, a, h, c. Remark. 

5 I -a 

^ I r III. Rule and Formula XXI. 

2* I IV. Models. 1, 2. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XLIX. 
Hypothetical Propositions, 

388. A Hypotlietical Proposition is one that consists 
of two clauses, one of which depends on the other and 
expresses an assumptio7i, condition or supposition; as. If 
THOU HADST BEEN HERE, my brother would not have died. 

389. The parts of a Hypothetical Proposition are the Protasis 
and the Apodosis. 

1. The Protasis is either 

(a.) A Conditional Clause, introduced by a Conditional 
Conjunction, (224, b) or 

{b.) A Concessive Clause, introduced by a Concessive Con- 
junction, (224, d.), 

2, The Apodosis is the conditioned or conceded clause, the latter 

being generally introduced by a Correlative Concessive 
Conjunction, (224 d.)» 

Remark. — In Hypothetical propositions, when the protasis or apodosis 
represents an actuality, the verb is in the indicative mode, but when it 
represents something merely imaginary, (a supposition or a conception 
of the mind,) the subjunctive mode is used. 

390. There are four varieties of Hypothetical propositions, 
viz: 

1. Reality. 

When the protasis expresses a real condition, equivalent to a 
cause, or whenever the mind reverts to the consequence of the 
condition ; as, J shall come, if it does not rain» The condition is real, 
and the indicative mode is used in both clauses. 

2. Poisisibility. 

When the protasis expresses contingency ; as, Unless I be by 
Sylvia in the night, there is no music in the nightingale. The apodosis 
is entirely dependent on the protasis, and hence the subjunctive mode 
is used in the one and the indicative in the other. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 181 

3. Present Impossibility. 

When the protasis expresses mere assumption in present time ; 
as, Should he say so, he would misrepresent the facts. The subjunctive 
modej past-imperfect tenscj complex form is used in both clauses. 

4. Past Impossibility. 

When the protasis expresses mere assumption in past time ; as, 
Had he said so, he woidd have misrepresented the facts. This form 
expresses impossibility in past time, and uses the past perfect sub- 
junctive in both clauses. 



• The following comparative view of hypothetical propositions 
in Greek, Latin and English will aid the student. 





Protasis. 


Apodosis. 




Reality. 


Greek. 


'Ei TovTo eXeye, 


y/uapTavei. 


Latin. 


Si hoc dicit, 


errat. 


English. 


If he says this 


he errs. 


-The Indicative Present is used in 


each clause. 




Possibility. 


Greek. 


'Eav TOVTO T^eyri, 


afiapTTjoy. 


Latin. 


Si hoc dicat, 


errabit. 


English. 


If he say this, 


he will err 



Remark. — The subjunctive present is used in the protasis, and the indicative present 
or future in the apodosis. 

Present Impossibility. 

Ghrtek. 'Ei tovto eTisye, y/adpTave dv. - 

Latin. Si hoc diceret, erraret. 

English. If he should say this, he would err. 

Bemark. — In the Greek, the imperfect indicative is used in the protasis, and the 
imperfect indicative with av in the apodosis. The Latin uses the imperfect subjunctive 
in both clauses, and the English the imperfect subjunctive conditional or complex in 
the protasis, and the imperfect subjunctive complex form in the apodosis. 

Past Impossibility. 

Greek. 'E^ tovto eAef af, f/juapTeg dv. 

Latin. Si hoc dixisset, errasset. 

English. If he had said this, he would have erred. 

16 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 1. — The Greek uses the aorist, and the Latin and English the pluperfect. 

Remark 2. — Mere assumption is expressed in Greek by the optative, with ei in th© 
protasis and av in the apodosis. 

391. I. Models ofAnalysiis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. Tliough Tie slay me, yet will I serve Mm. 

Analysis. 

This is a hypothetical proposition, of which though he slay me is the 
protasis, of which though is the connective, he, the subject, and 
slay me, the predicate, being complex, of which slay is the basis, 
modified by me, an objective element of the first class ; yet will I 
serve him is the apodosis, of which yet is a correlative referring to 
though, I is the subject, and will serve him is the predicate, being 
complex, of which will serve is the basis, modified by him, an 
objective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

Though is a concessive conjunction, is used to introduce the protasis, 
which it connects to the subject of the apodosis, according to 
Rule XXI: A subordinate connective joins the clause of which it forms 
a part to the word which the clause modifies. 

Yet is a correlative, it is used to express antithesis, but has no 
grammatical relation to the other words in the sentence, accoixiing 
to Rule XXIII : Particles and independent elements have no grammatical 
relatio7i to the other words, 

Ex. 2. Unless I he hy Sylvia in the night, there is no music 
in the nightingale. 

Analysis. 

This is a hypothetical proposition, of which unless I he by Sylvia in 
the night is the protasis, of which unless is the connective, /, the 
subject, and be by Sylvia in the night is the predicate, of which be 
is the basis, modified first by by Sylvia, an adjective phrase of 
place, of which byi^ the connective and Sylvia, the objective part, 
and secondly by in the night, an adverbial phrase of time, of which 
in is the connective and the night, the objective part, being com- 
plex, of which night is the basis, distributed by the, an adjective 
element of the first class. There is no music in the nightingale is 
the apodosis, «&ic. I 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 183 

Parsing. 

Unless is a conditional conjunction, used as a subordinate connective, 
and joins the clause of which it forms a part to /which the clause 
modifies, according to Rule XXI: A subordinate connective joins 
the clause of which it forms a part to the word which the clause modi- 
fies, 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Unless he learn faster, lie will never become a scholar. 

2. If thou censurest uncharitably, thou wilt deserve no favor. 

3. Though he fall, he shall not be utterly cast down. 

4. Unless you make a timely retreat, the danger will be unavoid- 
able. 

5. Though I were perfect, I would not presume. 

6. Had you come early, I would have accompanied you. 

7. Unless he improves himself, he will never be successful. 

8. Though he is high, he has respect to the lowly. 

9. What though, in solemn silence, all 
Move round the dark terrestrial ball? 
What though no real voice or sound 
Amid their radiant orbs be found ? 
In Eeason'*s ear they all rejoice, 
And utter forth a glorious voice, 
Forever singing as they shine, 
'^ The Hand that made its is divine,^'' 

Remaek. — What in the first and third lines of (9.) is an expletive. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. If he acquire riches, they will corrupt his mind. 

2. I shall walk in the fields to-day unless it rains. 

3. If Charlotte desire to gain esteem and love, she does not em- 
ploy the proper means. 

4. Unless thou can fairly support the cause, give it up honor- 
ably. 

5. Though thou might have foreseen the danger, thou couldst 
not have avoided it. 



184 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



6. If thou do sincerely believe the truths of religion, act accord- 
ingly- 

7. Though self-government produce some uneasiness, it is light 
when compared with the pain of vicious indulgence. 

IV. Write ten sentences consisting of hypothetical propositions. 






9 5 

ft 



o 



I. Parts, 



1. Protasis, a, b, 

2. Apodosis. 



II. Modes. 



III. Varieties. 



1. Real Condition. 

2. Possible Condition. 

3. Impossible Condition (present time). 

4. Impossible Condition (past tense). 

5. Note. 



1^ IV. Models. 1, 2. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. '185 

L-ESSON L, 
Adyerbial Elements of tlie Third Class. 

Final and Causal Clauses. 

392. Adverbial Elements of the third Class consist of 

(a.) Final Clauses. (§ 224, c.) 

(h.) Causal Clauses. (§ 224 e.) 

(c.) liocal Clauses. ^ 

(r/.) Temporal Clauses. I (§'s 227 and 228.) 

(e.) Modal Clauses. J 

393. Final Clauses are introduced by Final Conjunctions 
(§ 224, c), and express the airrij end^ motive or purpose^ with 
which an act is performed. 

Remark. — After verbs of advising, asking, commanding and striving, 
the infinitive is used to express purpose ; as, He told him not to do it. 

394. Causal Clauses are introduced by Causal Conjunc- 
tions (§ 224 cZ.)j and express 

a. An inference drawn from several propositions. 
/5. The reason for something that preceded it. 

Note 1. — Since final clauses express something douhtfulj the verb 
must be in the subjunctive mode. 

Note 2. — After words expressing denial^ doubt or fear, the conjunc- 
tion tliat is preferable to but, but what, but that^ and (sometimes) 
lest, how and a,s t^iat. 

Note 3. — In Complex sentences, containing adverbial clauses 
the verbs in each clause must express the same time, that is, past, 
present or future time, either absolute or relative; as, He said tuat be 
WENT or that he had gone. 

16* 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

394. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. Ye will not come unto me, that ye may have life. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which ye is the subject, 
will not come, ^c, is the predicate, being complex, of which will 
come is the basis, modified Q-) by not, (2) by unto me, and (3) by 
the Final Clause, that ye may have life, an adverbial element of the 
third class, of which that is the connective, ye, the subject, &c. 

Parsing. 

That is a Final Conjunction, is used as a subordinate connective, 
and joins the clause of which it forms a part to the word come 
which the clause modifies, according to Rule XXI : A subordinate 
connective, S^c, S^c. 

Ex. 2. We hate some persons, because we do not know the?. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which we is the subject, 
and hate, ^"c, the predicate, being complex, of which hate is the 
basis, modified (^) by some persons, ^c, (2) by the Causal clause, 
because we do not know them, an adverbial element of the third class, 
of which because is the connective, we, the subject, &c., &c. 

Parsing. 

Because is a Causal Conjunction, used as a subordinate connective, 
and joins the clause of which it forms a part to the word hate^ \ 
according to Rule XXI. (^Repeat the Rule.) 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. He visited the springs, that he might improve his health. 

2. I will send you a history of Rome, that you may examine it. 

3. I have brought you this passage, that you may explain it. 

4. You were happy to-day, because you were good. 

5. Ye receive me not, because ye know him not. 

6. Since the soil has been enriched, the corn will grow. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 187 

III. E:£aiiiples in False Siyntax. 

1. Despise not any condition, lest it happens to be your own. 

2. Ye will not come unto me that ye might have life. 

3. Let him that is sanguine, take heed lest he miscarries. 

4. Take care that thou breakest not any of the established rules. 

5. I think I have a slight recollection that he might have said so. 

6. There is no doubt but what he is mistaken. 

7. I have no doubt but that you can help him. 

8. I am surprised how you can do such a thing. 

9. I was afraid lest you would not return soon enough. 

10. I don't know as I shall go. 

11. He is not so tired but what he can whistle. 

12. He could not deny but what he borrowed the money. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing final or causal clauses. 



Ontline No. 4S. \ 



I. Final Clauses. Remark. 

II. Causal Clauses, a, h. Notes 1, 2, 3. 

III. Models. 1, 2. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON LI. 
Local Clauses. 

-v 396. liocal Clauises express the three relations of place, 
viz: Position (where?). Direction (whither?), and Origin 
(whence?), and are introduced hj Conjunctive Adverbs of 
Place (§ 228, 1.) 

Remark. — Some conjunctive adverbs of place admit of comparison ; 
as, He went farther than he was allowed, 

I^^Further relates to number or quantity ; farther, to distance. 

897. I. Models of Analyisis and Parsiing. 

Ex. 1. 1 will go ^ whither you direct. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which / is the subject 
and will go, ^c, is the predicate, being complex, of which will go 
is the basis, modified by the Local Clause, ^vhither you direct, an 
adverbial element of the third class, of which whither is the con- 
nective, you, the subject, and direct, the predicate. 

Parsing. 

Whither is a conjunctive adverb of place, is used as a subordinate 
connective, and joins the clause of which it forms a part to the 
word go, which the clause modifies, according to Rule XXI : [Re- 
peat the Rule.) It also modifies direct, with which it is construed, 
according to Rule IX. [Repeat the Rule.) 

II. £xanaples lor Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also. 

2. Whither I go, ye cannot come. 

3. See where the mountains rise; 
Where thundering torrents foam ; 
Where, vailed in towering skies, 
The eagle makes his home ; 
Where savage nature dwells, 
My God is present. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 189 

4. Down, down, where the storm is hushed to sleep, 

Where the sea its dirge shall swell ; 
Where the amber drops for thee shall weep, 
And the rose-lipped shell its music keep ; 

There thou shalt slumber well. 

5. Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled, 
And still where many-a garden flower grows wild ; 
There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose, 
The village preacher's modest mansion rose. 

6. wherefore, with a rash, impetuous aim. 
Seek ye those flowery joys with which the hand 
Of lavish fancy paints each flattering scene 
Where beauty seems to dwell, nor once inquire 
Where is the sanction of eternal truth, 

Or where the seal of undeceitful good, 
To save your search from folly ! 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. He told me where he went. 

2. I did not hear where he come from. 

3. Where I go, ye cannot come. 

4. I will go where I please. 

IV. Write ten seyitences containing Local Clauses, 



'I. liOcal Clauses* Remark, 
Outline No. 44. \ 

[ll. Model. 1. 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON LII. 

Temporal Clauses. 

398. Temporal Clauses express the three relations of time, 
viz: Point (when?), Period (how long?), and Frequency (how 
often?), and are introduced by conjunctive adverbs of time 

(§ 228, 2). 

399. The Idiomatic uses of tlie Tenses* 

1. Of the Present. 

1. The Abstract Present, 
This tense expresses 

a. What is habitual ; as, He chews tobacco; She reads 

novels, 
h, "What is always true ; as, Virtue is its own reward, 
c, A general fact ; as, The wish is father to the thought; 

Man IS immortal till his work is done, 

2. The Historical Present; as, Ccesar leaves Gaul, crosses the 

Pubicon and enters Ital^/. 

3. The Literary Present; as, Moses tells us so and so, Virgil 

imitates Homer, for has told, has imitated. 

4. The Future Present; as. When he comes, he will tell you. 
Remark. — This tense is used in simultaneous temporal clauses. 

IE. Of the Perfect, 

1. The Incomplete Perfect; as, He has been absent six years 

(and still is absent). 

2. The Historical Perfect; as, Of old hast thou laid the foun- 

dations of the earth. 

Note. — These foundations are finished, but still existing. This 
tense cannot be applied to anything finished but destroyed in the past. 

3. The Ternninal Perfect ; as, The cock shall not crow, till thou 

hast denied me thrice. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 101 

4. The Negative Perfect; as, /have been young (but now am 
old). 

III. Of the Fast 

1. The Limited Past ; as, /saw your friend this morning. 

2. The Customary Past ; as, She attended church all her life. 

Note. — The Past-Perfect tense sustains the same relation to the 
Past tense as the Perfect does to the Present. 

400. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. Cromwell followed little events before he ventured to 
govern great ones. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which Cromwell is the 
subject, followed, ^c, is the predicate, being complex, of which 
followed is the basis, modified (^) by little events, an objective element 
of the first class, &c., and (2) by the Temporal Clause, before he ven- 
tured to govern great ones, an adverbial element of the third class, 
of which before is the connective, he, the subject, and ventured to 
govern great ones, the predicate, being complex, of which ventured 
to govern is the basis, modified by great ones, an objective ele- 
ment, &c. 

Parsing. 

Before is a Conjunctive Adverb of Time, used as a subordinate con- 
nective, and joins the clause of which it forms a part to the word 
which the clause modifies, according to Rule XXI. [Repeat the 
Rule.) It also modifies ventured, with which it is construed, 
according to Rule IX. [Repeat the Rule.) 

Ones is an indefinite Pronoun, of the third person, plural number 
and neuter gender, to agree with events which it represents, 
according to Rule III. [Repeat the Rule.) It is construed as the 
complement oi govern, and must therefore be in the objective case, 
according to Rule X. [Repeat the Rule.) 

Kemabk. — Ventured agrees with he and to govern depends upon he, 

I II. Elscamples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. I will remain until you return. 



192 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



2. There are moments, I think, when the spirit receives 
Whole volumes of thought on its unwritten leaves, 
"When the folds of the heart in a moment unclose, 
Like the innermost leaves from the heart of a rose. 
And thus, when the rainbow had passed from the sky, 
The thoughts it awoke were too deep to pass by. 

3. While offering peace sincere and just 
In heaven we place a manly trust, 
That truth and justice will prevail 
And every scheme of bondage fail. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. Our teacher told us that the air had weight. 

2. Plato maintained that God was the soul of the universe. 

3. He hardly seemed to know that four and four made eight. 

4. What did he say her name was? 

5. When the nation would have rushed into war, his voice 
sheathed the sword in lasting peace. 

6. No one suspected that he was a preacher. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing temporal clauses. 



•N 

e 



c 



I. Temporal Clauses. 



wi 
in 

H 

c 



eg 

g 











1. Abstract Present, a, J, c. 

2. Historical Present. 

3. Literary Present. 

4. Future Present. Remark. 

1. Incomplete Perfect. 

2. Historical Perfect. Note. 

3. Terminal Perfect. 

4. Negative Perfect. 

1. Limited Past. 

2. Customary Past. 



^ III. Model. 1. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 193 

LESSON LIII. 
Modal Clauses. 

401. iModal Clauses are introduced by Conjunctive Adverbs 

(§ 228, 8), and express 

1. Correspondence. 

2. Consequence. 

3. Comparison. 

402. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. As the door turneth upon its hinges^ so doth the slothful 
man upan his bed. 

Analysis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which ^^As the door 
turneth upon its hinges^^ is the principal clause, of which as is a 
correlative, the door is the subject, being complex, of which door 
is the basis, distributed by the, an adjective element of the first 
class, and turneth upon its hinges, ^c, is the predicate, being com- 
plex, of w^hich turneth is the basis, modified (i) by upon its hinges, 
an adverbial element of the second class, of which upon is the con- 
nective and its hinges the objective part, being complex, of which 
hinges is the basis, modified by its, an adjective element of the 
first class; and (^) by the modal clause of correspondence, **5o 
doth the slothful man upon his hed,^^ an adverbial element of the 
third class, of which so is the connective, the slothful man, the 
subject, being complex, of which man is the basis, distributed by 
the, and modified by slothful, adjective elements of the first class; 
doth upon his bed is the predicate, bein^ complex, of which doth 
is the basis, modified by upon his bed, an adverbial element of the 
second class, of which upon is the connective, and his bed the 
objective part, being complex, of which bed is the basis, modified 
by his, an adjective element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

As is a correlative, relates to so, but has no grammatical relation to 
the other words in the sentence, according to Rule XVIII : Par- 
ticles have no grammatical relation to other words. 

17 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

So is a conjunctive adverb, and modifies doth, with which it is con- 
strued, according to Rule IX. [Repeat the Rule.) It is used to 
join the clause of which it forms a part to the word turneth which 
the clause modifies, according to Rule XXI. [Repeat the Rule.) 

Doth is a pro-verb (182. Rem.), represents the word turneth in the 
preceding clause; it is an auxiliary verb, principal parts, do, did, 
done, of the strong conjugation, indicative mode, present tense, 
solemn form, and of the third person, singular number, to agree 
with man, according to Rule II. {Repeat the Rule.) 

Ex. 2. Willie J read so that we can hear you. 

This is a complex imperative sentence, of which Willie is an inde- 
pendent element, being the name of the object addressed ; read, 
^c, is the predicate, being complex, of which read is the basis, 
modified by the modal clause of consequence, so that we can hear 
you, an adverbial element of the third class, of which so that is 
the connective, we, the subject, and can hear you, the predicate, 
being complex, of which can hear is the basis, modified by you, an 
objective element of the first class. 

Parsing^.. 

So that is a conjunctive adverb of consequence, and modifies hear, 
with which it is construed, according to Rule IX, [Repeat the 
Rule). It is used to join the clause of which it forms a part to 
the word read which the clause modifies, according to Rule XXI. 
(Repeat the Rule.) 

Ex. 3. The science of mathematics performs more than it 
promises. 

Analyisiis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which the science of 
mathematics is the subject, &c. ; performs more than it promises is 
the predicate, being complex, of which performs is the basis, 
modified by the modal clause of greater inequality, more than it I 
promises, an adverbial element of the third class, of which more 
than is the connective, it, the subject, and promises, the predicate. 



The predicate may be analized differently Perforins is the 
basiSy modified by more than it promises, an independent adverbial 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 195 

element of the first class, being complex, of which more is the 
basis, modified by than it promises, an adverbial element of the 
second class, of which than is the connective, and the substantive 
clause it promises, the complementary part, of which it is the sub- 
ject, and promises, the predicate. 

Parsing. 

More than is a conjunctive adverb of manner, expressing greater 
inequality, and modifies promises with which it is construed, 
according to Rule IX. [Repeat the Rule.) It joins the clause of 
which it forms a part to the word performs which the clause modi- 
fies, according to Rule XXI. [Repeat the Rule,) 

J8^* 3fore than may be parsed as follows, viz : 

More is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and is construed as the quantitative complement, 
and must therefore be in the objective case, according to Rule 
XIX. [Repeat the Rule.) 

Than is a preposition, and shows the relation of the substantive 
clause it promises to performs, which words it connects, according 
to Rule XI. [Repeat the Rule.) 

Remark. — ^In a subsequent lesson I will attempt to show that than is always followed 
by an element of the second or of the third class, the latter being sometimes abridged. 

Ex. 4. I have more than I know what to do with, 
Analyisis. 

This is a complex categorical proposition, of which /is the subject, 
and have more, ^c, is the predicate, being complex, of which have 
is the basis, modified by more than, ^c, an independent adverbial 
element of the first class, being complex, of which more is the 
basis, modified by than I know what to do with, an adverbial element 
of the second class, of which than is the connective, and the sub- 
stantive clause / know what to do with, the complementary part, of 
which / is the subject and know what^ to do with, the predicate, 
being complex, of which know is the basis, modified by what to do 
with, an abridged complementary element of the third class, of 
which the connective and subject are omitted, and the verb changed 
to the infinitive form, modified by what, a complementary element 
of the first class. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Parising. 

12 19 11 1 2 10 18 16 

I have more than I know what to do with. 
More is quantitative complement. 
To DO WITH depends upon /. 
What is the complement of to do with. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Moses built tlie tabernacle as he was commanded. 

2. As are blossoms in Spring, so are hopes in youth. 

3. There was such a noise that I could not hear. 

4. He has more than he knows what to do with. 

5. The more I use the book, the better I like it. 

6. Do as you are directed. 

7. Is gravity always as wise as it appears? 

8. Just as the twig was bent, the tree inclined. 

9. The more an avaricious man has, the more he wants. 

10. Henry is taller than his brother. 

11. As a bird that wandereth from her nest, so is a man that 
wandereth from his home. 

12. It cost much less than you suppose. 

Ill* Examples in False Siyntax. 

1. He went further than he was permitted. 

2. That room is better furnished than any in the house. 

3. Homer had the greatest invention of any writer. 

4. Lake Superior is larger than any lake in the world. 

5. China has a greater population than any nation on the globe. 

6. This was the thing which of all others I wished most to see. 

Remabk. — An object should not be compared with itself. The 
nsertion of other or a similar word, or a change of form, will make 
the sense clear. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing modal clauses. 



Correspondence. 
' I. Modal Clauses. \ 2. Consequence. 
Outline No. 46. J (3. Comparison. 



rl. Co 

S.-^2. Co 
(3. Co 



W 



.II. Models. 1,2,3,4. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 197 

LESSON LIY. 
Coordination. Compound Sentences. 

403. Coordination is effected by means of coordinate con- 
junctions (§ 223), and in order to understand the process 
thoroughly, let us examine the functions these connectives 
perform. 

The sentence, Mary and John study grammar z= Mary (stu- 
dies grammar) ; John studies grammar. 

The sentence Mary sings and plays = Mary sings ; (Mary) 
plays. 

The sentence. Wise, eloquent and learned men are honored = 
Wise (men are honored); eloquent (men are honored); learned 
men are honored. 

In the equivalents of these sentences, the parts in parenthesis 
are the words for which and stands. 

From these facts two inferences may be drawn, viz : 

I. Coordinate Conjunctions are nsed to contract 

discourse. 

II. Coordinate Conjunctions are nsed to connect 

words in tlie same predicament, viz : 

1. When the same act is attributed to several persons ; 
as, John and Mary tvrite. 

2. When different acts are attributed to the same per- 
son ; as, Mary plays ayid sings. 

3. When different qualities are attributed to the same 
object; as, Wise and good men die. 

4. When different circumstances limit the same action; 
as, James speaks eloquently and correctly. 

5. When different objects are in the same relation; 
as, George went to Boston and New York ; John 
taught James and George music and painting. 

17^ 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

404. If there be similarity or contrast in the thought presented 
and the form of expression has no common elementsj no elimination 
of parts can take place. 

405. Any of the elements heretofore mentioned may be com- 
pounded. If the elements thus united are propositions or postu- 
lates and are not dependent, the sentences thus formed are termed 
Compound. 

406. Coordinate conjunctions are used as follows, viz: 

a. If there is similarity of thought, a Copulative conjunc- 
tion (2 223, a) is usedf as, The heavens declare the glory 
of God AND the firmament showeth his handiwork. 

h. If there is contrast of thought, an Adversative con- 
junction [I 223, h) is used; as. Talent is complimented 
BUT tact is rewarded, 

c. If the sentence expresses identity or diflPerence, an Alter- 
native conjunction (| 223, c) is used; as, He is either 
very crafty or he lacks good judgment. 

Remark. — ^When the connection of thoughts is close, or one or all 
are to be emphatic, a connective is used in each clause or member, the 
one in the first part being called the correlative, 

407. Since coordinate conjunctions connect similar clauses (|406), 
and, also, words in the same predicament (| 403, II), that is, nouns 
or pronouns in the same relation, adjectives referring to the ^me 
object or different objects of the same name, verbs referring to the 
same subject in the same way, adverbs limiting the same word, &c., 
and since elegance of diction requires that elements thus connected 
should be of the same class, we infer 

RUL.E XXII. 

Coordinate conjunctions join similar clauses, and 
elements of the same NATURE, class and construction ; as, 
Life is short AND art is long ; John AND 3Iari/ broke up and 
destroyed James AND William's new AND leautiful playthings^ 
cutting AND mutilating them with a knife OR hatchet. 

FORiflUIiA XXII. 

Species? Use? Connects what? Rule XXII, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 199 

408. I. Models of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. Not only can the student gain no lofty improvement 
without labor ^ BUT without it no one can gain a tolerable hap- 
piness. 

Analysis. 

This is a compound categorical proposition, consisting of two coor- 
dinate clauses, connected by the copulative conjunction but. 
(? 223, a,) 

• Analyze each clause separately. 



Parsing. 

Not only is a correlative copulative conjunction, relates to but, ren- 
ders the first clause emphatic, but has no grammatical relation to 
other words, according to Rule XVIIL Particles have no gram- 
matical relation to other words. 

But is a copulative conjunction, is used to join clauses or elements 
expressing similarity of thought, according to Rule XXII. {^Re- 
peat the Rule.) 

Coordinate conjunctions join similar clauses and elements of the same 
nature, class and construction. 

II. Examples Tor Analysis and Parsing. 

Lament of an Indian Chief 

Charles Spragce. 

I will go to my tent and lie down in despair ; 

I will paint me with black, and will sever my hair ; 

I will sit on the shore, where the hurricane blows, 

And reveal to the god of the tempest my woes ; 

I will weep, for a season on bitterness fed, 

For my kindred are gone to the hills of the dead; 

But they died not by hunger, or lingering decay, — 

The steel of the white man hath swept them away: 

My wife and my children, — oh, spare me the tale ! 

For who is there left that is kin to Geehale! 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ill* £i:a]iipleis in False ISyntax. 

1. The Lord hath given and the Lord hath taken away. 

2. Me and him went down street to-day. 

3. Between him and I there is some disparity of years; but none 
between him and she. 

4. These people have indeed acquired great riches, but do not 
command esteem. 

5. He does not lack courage, but is defective in sensibility. 

6. If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind, and be use- 
less to others. 

IV. — Write ten sentences containing coordinate clauses. 



b- 



- I- 
^ O » Inferences*^ 
^- a I UI- 1,2,3,4,5. 

© M * « ^ Compound Sentences* a. h, c. Remark. 



SI 



^ 




% 









< 




§ 


M 






e 




S 
o 


tf 








S 

o 


W 




» 



Rule and Formula XXII* 





^ » L Model* 



i 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2j1 

LESSON LV. 
Agreement with Compound Elements, 

409. The agreement of v^erbs and pronouns with two or more 
nouns or pronouns connected by a coordinate conjunction, is three- 
fold, viz: 

I. As to Person. 
II. As to Kfumber. 
III. As to Gender (pronouns). 

I. Agreement in Person. 

1. If one of the nouns or pronouns is of the first person, and 

the other or others of the second or the third persons, 
the verb or pronoun must be of the first person ; as, 
a. Ij not hsj am sick* 

2. If one of the nouns or pronouns is of the second person 

and the other or others of the third, the verb or pronoun 
must be of the second person ; as, 
a. Thou, not they^ aPwT ivelcome, 

II. Agreement in Number. 

1. If either or both represent more than one object, the verb 

or pronoun must be plural ; as, 

a. George and his brother were absent. 

b. George or his brothers were absent. 

c. Then shalt thou bring forth that man or that woman 

unto thy gate, and shalt stone them with stones till 
they die. 

2. If they represent the same object, or if either of them is 

modified by each, every, or no, the verb or pronoun 
must be singular; as, 

a. Bread and milk is excellent food for children. 

b. Each day and each hour brings its own duties and 

trials. 

c. T/anc is the kingdom, and tJic power, and the glory. 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. If the verb or pronoun refers to the one and not to the 
other, it must be in the same number as the one to 
which it refers ; as, 

a. George, and not his brothersj was absent, 

h. They, not John^ love me, 

c. George and his sister tore his cap, 

III. Agreement in Gender* 

1. If a PRONOUN refers to two or more nouns or pronouns, 

and if one is masculine and the other or others feminine 
or neuter, or both, the pronoun must be masculine ; as, 

a. They (the Passions) snatched her (Music's) instruments 
of sound; (for,) each would prove his own expressive 
power, 

KxMAEE. — Some of the Passions are regarded as masculine; as, Fear, Anger y 
Despair; and others as feminine ; as, Hope, Pity, MelancJwly. — 
gee Collins's Ode on the Passions. 

2. If a PRONOUN refers to two or more objects, and if one is 

feminine and the other or others neuter, the pronoun 
must be feminine ; as, 

a. Each woman and each child lost her liberty. 

Note 1. — Grammarians generally say that verbs and pronouns 
having compound subjects, agree with the most worthy in person and 
gender. The first person is regarded as more worthy than the second 
or ihird^ and the second, than the third ; and the masculine gender is 
regarded as more worthy than the feminine or neuter, the feminine than 
the neuter. 

Note 2. — A Common pronoun, referring to nouns of different genders, 
would be a great convenience, and such a pronoun might easily bo 
coined. In German, the word gescliwiister means brothers aiad 
sisters. According to analogy, then, we should take the pronoun, 
she, her, her, and by prefixing the syllable ge and changing c into i, 
we would obtain the words geslii, geSiir, geliir, which would 
express the plural number and retain the idea of botli genders. 
Hence, such a sentence as fathers and mothers should love their children, 
would become fathers and mothers love geliir children, gehir expressing 
the idea of both sexes. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 203 

410. From the facts stated above, (? 409), we infer the following 
rules, viz : 

RIJI.E XXIII. 

A Verb having a compound subject agrees in person 
with the MOST WORTHY, and in NUMBER according to SIGNI- 
FICATION. 

FORMULA XXIII. 

Species ? Principal Parts ? Conjugation ? Hode ? 
Tense? Form? Agreement? Rule XXIII. 

RUL.F XXIV. 

A Pronoun having a compound antecedent agrees in 
PERSON and GENDER ivith the MOST WORTHY, and in NUMBER 
according to SIGNIFICATION. 

FORMIJI.A XXIV. 

Species? Person, Number and Gender? Agree- 
ment? Rule XXIV. Construction? Case? Rule. 

411. I. jHodels of Analysis and Parsing. 

Ex. 1. James^ Henry and George stud}/ grammar and history. 

Analysis. 

This is a simple categorical proposition, of which James, Henry and 
George is the subject, being compound, of which and is the 
connective and James, Henry and George, the coordinate parts; 
study grammar and history is the predicate, being complex, of 
which study is the basis, modified '\yy grammar and history, an ob- 
jective element of the first class, being compound, of which 
and is the connective and grammar and history the coordinate 
parts. 

Parsing. 

And is a coordinate conjunction of the copulative kind, it is used to 
contract discourse and join elements in the same predicament, 
according to Rule XXII: Coordinate Conjunctions join clauses and 
elements of the same nature, class and construction. 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Siudi/ is a definite transitive verb, principcal parts, study, studied, 
studied, of the weak conjugation, indicative mode, present tense, 
common form, and must be in the third person, plural number, 
to agree with its compound subject, according to Rule XXIII : A 
verb having a compound subject agrees in person with the most worthy, 
and in number according to signification, 

Ex. 2. James or his sister loas destroying his cap. 

Analysii^. 

This is a simple categorical proposition of which James or his sister 
is the subject, being compound, of which or is the connective and 
James and sister, the coordinate parts, sister being modified by his, 
an adjective element of the first class; was destroying his cap is 
the predicate, being complex, of which was destroying is the basis, 
modified by his cap, an objective element of the first class, being 
complex, of which cap is the basis, modified by his, an adjective 
element of the first class. 

Parsing. 

His is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number and 
masculine gender, to agree with an object of like qualities present 
to the mind [either James or some one else mentioned before), accord- 
ing to Rule III. [Repeat the Rule.) It is placed before cap to 
limit it, and must therefore be in the possessive case, according 
to Rule VII. [Repeat Ihe Rule.) 

Ex. 3. Tliou and thy sons ivith thee shall hear the iniquity of 
your priesthood. 

Parsing. 

Your is a personal pronoun, of the second person, plural number, 
masculine gender, to agree with its compound subject, thou and 
thy sons, according to Rule XXIV: A pronoun having a compound 
antecedent agrees in person and gender with the most worthy, and in 
number according to signification. 

II. Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. His meat was locusts and wild honey. 

2. One day the poor woman and her idiot boy were missed from 
the market-place. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



205 



3. Every insect and every bird was hushed. 

4. Neither the captain nor sailors were saved. 

5. They climb the distant mountains and read their doom in the 
setting sun. 

C. Thus I am doubly armed. My death and life, 
My bane and antidote, are both before me. 

7. A man severe he was, and stern to view ; 
I knew him well, and every truant knew. 

8. A literary, a scientific, a wealthy and a poor man were assem- 
bled in one room. 

III. Examples in False Syntax. 

1. Professing regard and to act differently, discovers a base mind. 

2. My brother and him are tolerable grammarians. 

3. Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him ? 

4. He bought a Webster and Worcester's dictionary. 

5. Let each man and each woman do their duty. 

6. John and Mary is coming. 

IV. Write ten sentences containing compound elements. 



1, a. 





% 


/- 


f I. Person. - 






H 




1 2, a. 




^ 


• 


\ y ** 


• 


H 
^ 






' 1, a, 5, c. 


© 


^ 
H 

^ 




II. Number. 


2, a, 6, c. 


;?; 


S 






3. a. h, c. 




a^ 


< 


' ' ' ' 




^ 




rl, a. Remark. 


C 


^ 




III. Gender.^ 


g 




( 2, a. Notes 1, 2. 




c 




Rules and Formulas XXIII, XXIV. 




w 


\. 


Models. 1, 2, 


3. 



18 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON LVL 

Contraction and Abridgment 

412. In order to arrive at a just conclusion with regard to contrac- 
tion and abridgment, and elucidate a correct theory on the subject, it 
will be necessary to consider the nature of language, and examine some 
extracts. 

Language (J 1) is the embodiment of thought, sentiment or volition 
in words. Hoic do we think, feel and will? Is language essential to 
our mental operations, or is it only an outgrowth, a dress which may 
be doffed and donned at pleasure ? Our thoughts are momentary : 
their formulation is in time, and is the result of art. We think, feel 
and will, without the use of language, We employ language only 
when we wish to preserve our thoughts or communicate them to others. 
The cultivated man thinks and formulates at the same time, so much 
BO, that the man who thinks and writes will be more exact, but not so 
ready as he who utters his thoughts and sentiments as they are shaped 
by his mental faculties. 

413. Germanimultum abGallisdifferunt; nam neque Druides 
liabent, qui rebus divinis pr^sint, neque sacrificiis student. 
Deoruni numerum eos solos ducunt, quos cernunt, et quorum 
aperte o pi bus juTantur, Solem, et Yulcanum et Lunam : reliquos 
ne fama quidem aceeperunt. Vita omnis in veiiatioiiibus atque 
in studiis rei militaris consistit: ab parvulis labori ac duritiae 
student. — Ccesar, 

An examination of this paragraph will develop these three facts, 
viz: 

1. No subject is expressed more than once in the same paragraph. 

2. The main subject is placed first, and all the verbs refer to it and 
agree with it. J|@^ See words in black letter. 

3. Whenever a verb has a different subject from the main one, it 
must be expressed. Jg@^ See words in small caps. 

414. Grammarians lieretofore, in their empirical way, have 
supplied words in order to explain difficult constructions. This is 
certainly an un philosophical process. Language is the expression 
of a mental act, and what is not expressed is not language. If the 
language is properly framed, it will convey a clear idea to the mind 
of the reader and hearer, and hence the grammarian should explain 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 207 

language as he finds it, and avoid that tinkering process of equiva- 
lents and ellipses which only ^'darkens counsel by words without 
knowledge." 

415. Contractiou is the omission and changing of 
common parts of a compound sentence, and has been 
treated of in Lessons LIV and LV. 

416. Abridgment is the omission and changing of 
certain parts of a subordinate clause, and has been par- 
tially treated in Lesson XL. 

I ^ubsitantive Clauseis. 

a. The soldiers desired nothing more than (that they might 

KNOW =) to KNOW" whcrc the enemy was. 
h. I knew not (what I should do =) what to do. 

c. I know not (where I shall go =) where to go, (whom I 

shall SEND==) whom to send, (when I SHOULD STOP =) 
WHEN TO STOP. 

d, I believe (that he is -=) him to be an honest man. 

S. Adjective Clauses, 

a. The ship (which sailed r=) sailing so beautifully, was 

wrecked. 
h. A man who perseveres = a persevering man will succeed. 
c. There are moral principles (which slumber =) slumbering 

in the souls of the most depraved. 

S. Adverbial Clauses. 

a. The bed is (shorter than that a man can stretch =) too 
SHORT for a man TO STRETCH himself in it. 

h. My friend was so elated (as that he forgot his appoint- 
ment =) AS TO forget his APPOINTMENT. 

c. (Since a youth is their leader =) a youth being their 

LEADER, what can they do? 

d. (When they approached =) on approaching the city, 

they were met by the citizens. 

e. (When I had finished =) having finished my letter, I 

retired. 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

417. Let us examine a few sentences more closely. 

( 1. ) The learned pagans ridiculed the Jews for being ( = because 

THEY ^VERE = OX ACCOUNT OF THEIR BEING) a CredldouS 

people. 

Remark 1. — The expression for being := because they were, and 
ON ACCOUNT OP THEIR BEING, differ in form but not in signification. 

Remark 2. — No subject is expressed before being, because Jews, to 
which being refers, is close to it, and a repetition of the word in the 
same sentence would neither promote its perspicuity nor render it 
more elegant. 

(2.) I must he instructed in order to be a scholar (= in order 

THAT I MAY BE A SCHOLAR.) 

Remark. — That I is omitted, because it is not necessary to make 
the sense clearer, and may he is changed into the infinitive to he. The 
attribute remains unchanged. 

(3.) He hroke John^s and Mary^s slates. 
He hroke John and Mary^s slate. 

Remark. — When two or more objects possess a similar thing, the 
sign of possession is annexed to each noun; but when they possess the 
same thing, it is annexed to the last only. 

(4.) John is older than George (=^ than that George is 

OLD. 

Remark. — Tlian is used after adjectives and adverbs expressing 
comparison, diversity, ^c. It therefore expresses a relation, not of objects 
but of thoughts, and the words following it are part of a proposition, 
contracted or abridged, which should be regarded as its complement. 
The proposition of which George forms a part .is the complement of 
than, but, the common parts being omitted, George remains in the 
nominative case. 

418. From these facts, the following conclusions may be drawn: 

I. Language is artificial, and is therefore subject to certain rules of 

art. 

II. One of these rules is, if possible, to use hut one word in a sen- 

ience to represent the same thing. 

III. Upon this principle contraction and abridgment 

depend. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 209 

LESSOR LVII. 

Arrangement and Transposition. 

419. The natural order of the words of an English sentence 
is as follows : 

1. Subject + Predicate. 

2. Subject + Copula + Attribute. 

3. Adjective Elements. 

a. Adjectives before nouns. 

5. Adjective Phrases and Clauses after nouns. 

c. Possessives before nouns. 

d. Appositives after nouns or pronouns. 

4. Objective Elements after verb. 

a. Indirect, if the shorter word, before the direct. 
h. Indirect, if the longer word or preceded by a prepo 
sition^ after the direct. 

5. Adverbial Element. 

a. Adverbs as in Lesson XXXVII. 
Z). Phrases and Clauses after the verb. 

6. Interrogative Sentences. 

a. Direct: subject after auxiliary. 

h. Indirect : antecedent or modifier of interrogative, after 
the sentence. 

7. Hypothetical Propositions. 

a. Protasis. Apodosis. 

420. Words, phrases and clauses are often transposed, in order to 
render a sentence more emphatic or promote its strength. 

1. Great is Diana of the Ephesians. 

2. Silver and gold have I none. 

3. To accomplish this, many things must be done. 

18* 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

42L Transposition often changes the sense of a sentence. Take 
the sentence, That is John's horse, and That horse is John's. In the 
former the thing possessed is prominent ; in the latter, the possessor. 
So too with the sentence, TTiis is a sword of Washington's and This 
is Washington's sword, the position of the possessive is changed 
in order to make the possessor prominent. By the application of 
this principle, many anomalies can be explained. 

422. Point out the natural order of the words in the following extracts : 

1. Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, and all our woe, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
Kestore us, and regain the blissful seat, 

Sing, Heavenly Muse. 

2. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. 

3. A stranded soldier's epaulet 
The waters cast ashore. 

4. Gorgeous was the time, yet brief as gorgeous. 

5. Oft have the laws of each poetic strain 
The critic-verse employed; yet still unsung 
Lay this prime subject, though importing most 
A poet's name; for fruitless is the attempt, 

By dull obedience and by creeping toil, 
Obscure to conquer the severe ascent 
Of hi;^h Parnassus. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 211 

LESSOR LVIII. 
Summary and Classification of Rules. 

^Subject or Finite Verb. 

2 299, Rule I. Model, pp. 114 and 115. 
The subject of a finite verb must be m the nominative case. 

Finite Verb, 

2 300, Rule 11. Model, pp. 114 and 115. 
The finite verb must agree with its subject in person and number. 

Agreement of Prononns. 

I 301, Rule III. Model, p. 115. 
The pronoun must be in the same person^ number and gender as the object 
which it represents. 

Predicate Noung> or Pronouns. 

I 310, Rule IV. Models, pp. 119 and 161. 

A noun or pronoun predicated of another noun or pj'onoun must be in the 
same number, gender and case. 

Construction of Adjectives. 

I 311, Rule v. Models, pp, 119, 120, 124, 125 and 166. 
The adjective must be construed with the word representing the object to 
which it refers. 

Agreement of Nouns witb Adjectives. 

J 314, Rule VI. Model, p. 124. 
A noun modified by a Distributive or Definitive must agree with it in 
number, 

Possessives. 

I 319, Rule VII. Model, p. 128. 
A noun or pronoun placed before a noun to limit it, must be in the pos- 
sessive case. 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

AppositiTes. 

? 322, Rule VIIL Model, p. 131. 
A noun placed after a noun or pronoun to identify it, must be in the same 
number, gender and case, 

Constrnction of Adverbs. 

? 826, Rule IX. Models, pp. 134, 135, 169. 
The adverb must be construed with the ivord which it modifies. 

Conaplement of tlie Verb. 

? 330 and | 331, Rule X. Models, pp. 126 and 158. 
The complement of the verb must be in the objective case. 

Construction of Prepositions. 

I 341, Rule XI. Models, pp. 139, 140, 161 and 166. 
A preposition connects ivords representing related things, 

Complement of tbe Preposition. 

% 

I 342, Rule XII. Models, pp. 139 and 140. 

The complement of a preposition must, be in the objective case, 

Subject of ^be Infinitive. 

? 348, Rule XIII. Model, p. 145. 
The subject of the infinitive must be in the objective case. 

Possessive Subject. 

? 349, Rule XIV. Model, p. 145. 
The subject of a participle governed by a preposition must be in the pos- 

ussive case. 

Complementary Subject. 

? 350, Kule XV. Model, p. 146. 
The subject of the complementary participle must be in the objective case. 

Infinitives, Participles and Imperatives. 

? 351, Rule XVI. Models, pp. 144 and 145. 

The infinite verb depends on the word to which it refers. 



ENaLISH GRAMMAR 213 

Nominative Absolute or Independent. 

2 357, Rule XVII. Models, pp. 149 and 150. 

A noun or pronoun used absolutely or independently must be in the nomi- 
native case. 

ParticleiS and Independent Elementis. 

I 358, Rule XVIII. Models, p. 150. 
Particles and Independent Elements have no grammatical relation to other 
words. 

Quantitative Complement. 

I 360. Rule XIX. Models, pp. 153, 154 and 200, 
The quantitative complement must he put in the objective case without a 
governing word. 

I^^ubstantive Connectives. 

I 382, Rule XX. Models, pp. 172, 173 and 174. 
A substantive connective introduces the clause of which it forms a part. 

Siubordinate Connectives. 

I 386. Rule XXL Models, pp. 177, 178, 182, 183, 186, 188, 191 
and 193. 
A subordinate connective joins the clause of which it forms a part to the 
word which the clause modifies. 

Coordinate Conjunctions. 

I 407, Rule XXII. Models pp. 199 and 203. 
Coordinate conjunctions join similar clauses and elements of the same 
nature, class and construction. 

Agreement of Verb witb Compound Subject. 

? 410, Rule XXIII. Models, p. 204. 
A verb having a compound subject agrees in person with the most worthy, 
and in number according to signification. 

Agreement of Pronouns with Compound Antecedent. 

? 410, Rule XXIV. Model, p. 204. 

A pronoun having a compound antecedent agrees in person and gender 
with the most worthy ^ and in number according to signification. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

424. The rules of grammar are of three Linds, viz: 

I. Kules of Agreement. 

II. Rules of GoTernmeiit. 

III. Rules of Construction. 

I. Rules of Agreement. 

1. Finite Verb. Rule II, | 300. 

2. Pronouns. Rule III, ^ 301. 

3. Predicate Noun. Rule IV, ? 310. 

4. Nouns with Adjectives. Rule VI, g 314. 

5. Appositives. Rule VIII, ^322. 

6. Verbs with Compound Subject. Eule XXIII, §410. 

7. Pronouns with Compound Antecedent. Kule XXIV, ? 340. 

II. Rules of CJovernment. 

1. Subject of Finite Verb. Rule I, § 299. 

2. Possessives. Rule VII, | 319. 

3. Complement of the Verb. Rule X, ?'s 330 and 331. 

4. Complement of a Preposition. Rule XII, | 342. 

5. Objective Subject. Rule XIII, I 348. 

6. Possessive Subject. Rule XIV, I 349. 

7. Complementary Subject. Rule XV, ?350. 

8. Nominative Absolute or Independent. Rule XVII, § 357. 

9. Quantitative Complement. Rule XIX, § 360. 

III. Rules of Construction. 

1. Adjectives. Rule V, ? 311. 

2. Adverbs. Rule IX, 1 326. 

3. Prepositions. Rule XI, § 341. 

4. Infinitives, Participles and Imperatives. Rule XVI, ^ 351. 

5. Particles and Independent Elements. Rule XVIII, I 358. 

6. Substantive Connectives. Rule XX, § 382. 

7. Subordinate Connectives. Rule XXI, ^ 386. 
^ Coordinate Conjunctions. Rule XXII, 1 407. 



